via
converts to
Until
until
until
until
until
causing
until
begins with
by
provided
evolves into
Evolved into
engulfed & provided shelter to
Theorized that
Explains origin of
found in mature plant cells
found in many freshwater protists
Forms when cells engulf food or other particles
recycles cell's own organic material
contains hydrolytic enzymes & fuses with food vacuole
part of
Made specific to bind and destroy
are also
travels to
travels to
travels to
to the
shipped through
protein with an ER signal sequence is escorted to
transport to
with the help of
transport to
begins with
dissociates the complex stopping translation and this process is driven by
in the A site is a
reaches
leads to
forms this bond (between two amino acids)
with this enzyme
comes to
begins with
then the large ribosomal unit joins to form the
scans to find the
binds to
also needs these proteins
at
occurs in
dissociates the complex stopping translation and this process is driven by
in the A site is a
reaches
leads to
forms this bond (between two amino acids)
with this enzyme
comes to
begins with the next
then the large ribosomal unit joins to form the
scans to find
binds to
at
needs
occurs in
leads to
in
in
this process forms
removes
joins together
in which this complex of RNA and proteins
this helps with
adds to 3' end
used for
pre mRNA then undergo
added to 5' end
has this sequence to cut newly formed pre mRNA and release from DNA
synthesizes
forms
binds to
recruits
requires these proteins
process begins with
occurs in
reaches
accomplished by
synthesizes
accomplished by
bind to
accomplished by
third stage
second stage
accomplished by
first stage
occurs in
in
in
comprises of
comprises of
involves
involves
makes
converts to processive with this protein
involves
creates
forms
involves
begins with
replicates through the
held together by
joined by
comprises of
comprises of
comprises of
monomer present is
utilized through
transmitted through
expressed through
transmitted through
Uses (for energy)
facilitates
Uses
binds to
contain
some exracellular components include
contain
some extracellular components include
can be found within
integral to
made of proteins called
an example
protein subunits
can result in
sometimes present in
uses
protein subunits
A pair makes
facilitates
uses
many make
made of protein subunits
made of fibers such as
made of fibers such as
made of fibers such as
contains
Consists of
are poisoned by O2 so they become
thrive in hot environments
Live in highly saline environments
Some live in swamps and marshes and produce methane as waste product
some that live in extreme environments
contains
can form (in harsh conditions)
contains
Consists of
if there are none present
mRNA undergo
to make
is
has
Undergo
which forms nucleic acids (polymers) such as
to form
contains
undergo
Made of monomers like
involves interactions like
if positively charged
if negatively charged
if it contains OH, SH or NH groups
only covalent bond between these
if it contains H, CH or carbon rings
involves interactions of
Hydrogen bonds help maintain and form
involves 2+ polypeptides
highest level of any polypeptide
To form
can undergo
can undergo
to form
Composed of
undergoes
Made of monomers like
consists of
consists of
is
can form
To form
can undergo
is
consists of
is
consists of
forms
present in
mostly hydrocarbon and Undergoes
has
consists of
present in
connected by
present in
present in
Is
bonds hundreds of monosaccharides to form
To form
undergoes
Made of monomers like
Have carbon compounds that form
coupled for Prokaryotes
(one type) help activate
facilitates
similar to
binds to
to synthesize
Using
until
to unfold back to
attached to
involves interactions of
involves interactions of
uses
uses this process
binds to
binds to
to make
lines the interior of
myosin's "head" attaches to actin and moves, actin filament slides

Cells

Biological Molecules

Carbohydrates

Monosaccharides

dehydration/condensation reaction

glycosidic bond/linkage

polysaccharide

Storage polysaccharide

Glycogen

extensively
branched

animals

Starch

Plants

alpha 1-4
glycosidic
linkages

Dextran

Structure polysaccharide

Cellulose

plant walls

beta 1-4
glycosidic
linkages

no branching

Chitin

Lipids

dehydration/condensation synthesis

fat molecule (triacylglycerol/triglyceride)

fatty acids

Saturated

Solid at room temp.

single bonds

Unsaturated

Isomers

Cis (causes bending)

Artificial Hydrogenation

transaturated fat

Trans

liquid at room temperature

glycerol

Phospholipids (amphipathic)

bilayer (in water)

hydrophobic tails

hydrophilic heads

polar

Proteins

Amino Acids

condensation/dehydration

hydrogen bonds

protein folding

primary structure

secondary structure

alpha helices

beta helices

tertiary structure

R Group

quaternary structure

denaturation

amino group

main chain

carboxyl group

unique R Group

Nonpolar

van der waals or hydrophobic

disulfide bond

Polar

Acidic

Basic

Functions: Enzymatic, Defensive, Storage,
Transport, Hormonal, Receptor, Structural &
Contractile and motor proteins

Nucleic Acids

nucleotides

condensation/dehydration

phosphodiester bond/linkage

DNA

transcription

mRNA

complementary base pairing
& antiparallel strands

double stranded

RNA

translation

5-Carbon sugar (pentose)

phosphate group

nucleosides

nitrogenous base

pyrines

Adenine & Guanine

pyrimidines

Cytosine & Thymine (DNA)

Uracil (RNA)

Three Domains of Life

Bacteria

Prokaryotes

endospores

Bacterial cell

gas vacuole

ribosomes

inclusion bodies

nucleoid

periplasmic space

cell wall

peptidoglycan

capsules and slime layer

circular chromosome

fimbriae & pili

flagella

membrane lipids
(unbranched hydrocarbons)

Archaea

extremophiles

extreme halophiles

extreme thermophiles

methanogens

anaerobes

Some Archaea Cell Components

Membrane lipids (some
branched hydrocarbons)

Circular chromosomes

RNA polymerase (several kinds)

Eukarya

Eukaryotes

Eukaryotic cell

Cytoskeleton

Microtubules

tubulin (alpha and beta)

Kinesin (motor proteins)

organelle movement

centrioles

centrosoles

helps chromosome movement

Microfilaments

actin

Myosin (motor protein)

Muscle Contraction

Cytosol

cytoplasmic streaming

Intermediate Filaments

several different proteins
(like keratins)

nuclear lamina

lamina

Nucleus (shape and stability)

Extracellular Components

Plant Cells

Cell Wall

Primary cell wall

Middle lamella

secondary cell wall

cell junctions

Plasmodesmata

Animal Cells

extracellular matrix (ECM)

Fibronectin

Integrins (membrane proteins)

Peptidoglycans

Collagen

cell junctions

Tight Junctions

Desmosomes

Gap Junctions

Flagella

motor

Some components

Membrane lipids
(unbranched hydrocarbon)

RNA polymerase

Methionine (Initiator amino
acid for protein synthesis)

Membrane-enclosed organelles

Nuclear Envelope

Cilia & Flagella

Dyneins (motor protein)

bending movement

ATP

Genetic information

DNA Structure

nucleotide

nitrogenous base (adenine,
guanine, cytosine, thymine)

hydrogen bonds

phosphate group

five-carbon sugar (deoxyribose)

phosphodiester bond

Cell Regulation

Mitosis

Eukariotic cells

Regulation of Gene Expression

Transcription factors

Promoter and Silencer region

RNA Processing Mechanisms

Chromatin Modification

Post Transcriptional Regulation

Translation Regulation

Protein Modification

cell cycle modification

Meiosis Regulation

Meiotic Spindle Formation

Cytokenisis

Mitosis Regulation

Mitotic Spindle formation

Enhancer and silencer region

Meiosis

Prokariotic Cells

Cell Division

DNA Replication

Semi-conservative model

Origin of Replication

enzymes & proteins

Helicase

separates the two
strands to form
replication bubble

Topoisomerase

helps relieve any strain
caused by unwinding of
the DNA

SSB

stabilizes the
unwound parental
strands

Primase

makes RNA primers
complementary to
the DNA parent strand
sequence

Replication bubble

Replication forks

leading strand

DNA polymerase III

synthesizes the leading
strand continuously 5' to 3'

sliding clamp

lagging strand

okazaki fragments

DNA polymerase I

removes the RNA
primer and replaces
with DNA nucleotides

Ligase

seals any gaps
(by connecting
nucleotides by
phosphodiester
linkages)

Gene Expression

Transcription

Prokaryotes

cytoplasm

Initiation

RNA polymerase (RNAP)

promotor

DNA strands unwind

initiates RNA synthesis
at start point (on template)

RNA polymerases (RNAP)

Elongation

RNA polymerase (RNAP)

new RNA nucleotides are
added from 5' to 3' end

mRNA

Termination

RNA polymerase (RNAP)

transcription termination site

transcription stops

Eukaryotes

nucleus

Initiation

transcription factors

RNA Polymerase II

Eukaryotic Promotor
(includes TATA box)

transcription initiation complex

pre mRNA

Termination

AAUAAA

modified G
nucleotide
(CAP)

translation

poly-A polymerase

polyA tail

mRNA stability

RNA Splicing

Spliceosomes

Exons

different mRNA & proteins

Introns

Translation

Prokaryotes

cytoplasm

Initiation

Initiation Factors

small ribosomal subunit

tRNA (carries fMet)

5' cap of mRNA

start codon (AUG)

translation initiation complex

Elongation

tRNA (carrying
correct amino acid)

A site

Peptidyl transferase

peptide bond

Translocation

Termination

stop codon (UAG, UAA, or UGA)

A site

release factor

GTP

Eukaryotes

cytoplasm

Initiation

small ribosomal subunit

tRNA (carries Met)

5' cap of mRNA

start codon (AUG)

translation initiation complex

Initiation Factors

Elongation

tRNA (carrying
correct amino acid)

A site

Peptidyl transferase

peptide bond

translocation

Termination

stop codon (UAG, UAA, or UGA)

A site

release factor

GTP

Protein Transport

protein synthesis (in cytosol)

organelles

mitochondria

nucleus

peroxisomes

chloroplast
(if a plant cell)

SRP (signal recognition particle)

ER

rough endoplasmic reticulum

vesicle

Golgi

membrane

secretion
(outside
of cell)

lysosyme

Plasma Membrane

Contains

Mosaic Plasma Membrane

Integral Proteins

Transmembrane Protein

Peripheral Proteins

Membrane Protein Functions: Transport, Enzymatic, Signal Transduction, Cell-cell recognition, Intercellular joining, Attachment to cytoskeleton and ECM

Phospholipid Bilayer

is comprised of

Serves as

Regulator of transport of substances via selective permeability

Doesn't allow ... across

Large, uncharged polar molecules

Ions

Types of transport across membranes

Passive

Down Concentration Gradient

Diffusion

Unfacilitated

Spreads from high concentration to low concentration until even distribution with no help

Osmosis

Water Balance of Cells

Tonicity

Isotonic

Solute concentration is same as inside of cell; no movement across membrane

Flaccid in plant cells

Normal in animal cells

Hypotonic

Osmoregulation

contractile vacuoles are used to pump excess water out of the cell

Solute concentration is less than inside of cell; cell loses water

Lysed in animal cells

Turgid (normal) in plant cells

Hypertonic

Solute concentration is greater than inside of cell; cell gains water

Plasmolyzed in plant cells

Shriveled in animal cells

Requires no energy

Bulk Transport

Transports larger molecules such as polysaccharides and proteins via vesicles

Active

Moves substances from low to high concentration

Cotransport

Occurs when active transport indirectly drives transport of other substances

Maintains concentration gradient

Proton Pump

Sodium-Potassium Pump

Uses phosphorylation with ATP to enable process

Uses electrogenic protein pump to transfer ions

Inside membrane

K+

Requires energy

Allows ... across

small nonpolar molecules

small uncharged polar molecules

Has

Membrane Fluidity w/Specific Temp

Can be affected by

Photosynthesis

Light Dependent reaction

Photosystem 2

Photolysis

Water Splitting

O2 Release

Photosystem 1

Nadph

Calvin Cycle

Carbon Fixation

Glucose Production

Specialized Cells

Lymphocytes

B Cells

particular antigen

T Cells

Macrophages

cell's immune response

Lipoproteins

cholesterol

HDL

LDL

Increased by Saturated and Trans fats

Main chain

main chain

Endomembrane system

Organelles

nuclear envelope

endoplasmic reticulum

golgi apparatus

lysosomes

phagocytosis

autophagy

plasma membrane

vacuoles

Food vacuoles

Contractile vacuoles

Central vacuoles

Endosymbiont Theory

Mitochondria & Chloroplasts

Eukaryotic Cell

Prokaryotic Cell

mitochondria

photosynthesis

Chloroplast

Symbiotic Relationship

High Temperature (Liquid Crystalline Phase)

Low Temperature (Gel Rigid Phase)

Facilitated

Transports substances that cannot diffuse on their own from high concentration to low concentration

Transports with the help of

Carrier Protein

Goes through changes in shape to translocate the solute-binding site across membrane

Channel Protein

Provides corridors to allow specific molecule/ion to cross the membrane

Outside membrane

H+

Na+

Generates voltage across membrane as membrane potential

Endocytosis

Transports larger molecules INSIDE of cell via...

Phagocytosis

The cell extends part of the membrane out (Pseudopodium)

Intakes nonspecific materials

Pinocytosis

Can be specialized

The cell intakes extracellular fluid

Exocytosis

Transports larger molecules OUTSIDE of cell

Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis

Acquire bulk quantities of specific substances using specific receptors that cluster to form a coated vesicle

Two types of cell signaling

Communicate

Signaling Parts

Signaling molecule

Molecule released by cell that is received by another cell

Receptor

Present in a target cell that receives signal molecule

Two types of receptors

Membrane receptor

Present in membrane

Receives molecules that cannot cross lipid bilayer

Stages of signaling

Reception

Transduction

Response

Phosphorylation Cascade

Uses Kinases and Phosphatases

signaling molecule binds to receptor

Relay molecule is activated and activates protein kinase 1

Active protein kinase 1 activates inactive protein kinase 2 by adding phosphate group

Active protein kinase 2 activates inactive protein which triggers...

Active protein causes cellular response

Nuclear Response

Last kinase from the phosphorylation cascade enters the nucleus

Phosphatases catalyze removal of phosphate groups making it inactive

All takes place in...

G-Protein linked receptor

Transmembrane Protein

G proteins such as Guanosine diphosphate (GDP) and Guanosine Triphosphate (GTP) are binded onto GCPR

When inactive, GDP is bounded

Signaling molecule binds onto the GPCR

GDP is replaced with GTP as the G protein is now active

G protein activates a nearby enzyme as it diffuses across the membrane

Phosphate group is removed, converting the GTP to GDP and moves the G protein back to the GCPR

Ion Channel receptor

Ligand-gated ion receptor remains closed

Signal molecules binds onto receptor

Gate opens which allows the movement of ions through the receptor via a channel

Ligand dissociates from receptor which closes the channel

Tyrosine kinase receptor

Begins as 2 inactive monomer peptides with 3 Tyrosine attached

Both peptides undergo dimerization to become active tyrosine-kinase regions

Autophosphorylation occurs until all tyrosine regions have a phosphate group

Autophosphorylation is when phosphate is taken from ATP to form ADP

Inactive relay proteins bind onto phosphate sites to trigger cellular responses

Each tyrosine can act as a kinase

A kinase adds phosphate groups

Needs help of second messenger

Used in signal transduction to relay signal within a cell

small, nonprotein, water-soluble molecules or ions

Cyclic AMP

AMP

enzyme phosphodiesterase

Intracellular receptor

Receives molecules that cross lipid bilayer

Present in cytoplasm

Physical contact

Use cell surface proteins to trigger response

Use junctions to directly connect the cytoplasm of adjacent cells

Local signaling

Long distance contact

Signal travels long distance to reach target cell

Hormonal Signaling

local contact

secreting cell releases signal

Synaptic Signaling

Paracrine signaling

Adenylyl cyclase

ATP

Inactive transcription factor is activated by the last kinase in the cascade

Inactive transcription factor binds onto DNA and activates gene expression

Electron Transport Chain

NADH Dehydrogenate

Nadh

Nad+

FMN

Fe-s Clusters

Coenzyme Q

Cytochrome bc1

Cytochrome c

Cytochrome c oxidase

Oxygen

H20

Succinate Dehydrogenate

FADH2

FAD