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RNA
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cell membrane is need for protein pathway when releasing protiens out of the cell.
a part of the prokaryotic gene expression (CAP and cAMP)
Both make up significant portions of the kidney
Both work together to allow cells to respond according to their environment
Phosphate groups are connected to the DNA Polymerase III because it adds it to the DNA nucleotides in the 5’-3’ direction
Adenylyl Cyclase and cAMP use in Cell Signaling are similar to prokaryote Gene Regulation.

Unit 1

Chemical Bonds

Intermolecular

Electronegativity < 0.5

Non-Polar

Electronegativity > 0.5

Polar

Ion-dipole

Ions and polar molecules

Dipole-Dipole

Hydrogen Bond

F, O, N

Intramolecular

Covalent

Electronegativity > 0.5

Polar

Electronegativity < 0.5

Non-polar

Ionic Bonds

Salts

Crystals

Interactions

Polar substances

Hydrophilic

Polar and Non-polar

Hydrophobic interactions

Cells

Non-polar substances

Van der Waals

Cell Structures

Biological Molecules

Carbohydrates

Length/Branching

Ring Structure

Structural Isomer

Double Bond Location

Geometric Isomer

Cis Bonding (Hydrogens same side)

Trans Bonding (Hydrogens different side)

Nucleic Acids

Nucelotides

Phosphate Group

Sugar Group

Nitrogenous Group

Nucleoside

Sugar/Nitrogenous Group

Proteins

Amino Acid

Primary/Peptide Bond

Polypeptide

R group (Tertiary/Quatnery)

Enantiomers

Carbon in the Center/Mirror Image/4 different molecules

Lipids

Phospholipid Bilayer

Hydrophobic Tail/ Hydrophilic Head

Amipathic Molecules

Hydrophobic/Hydrophilic Properties

Steroids

Cholesterol

Sex Hormones

Cell Evolution

Oparin's Bubble Hypothesis

Milley-Urey Experiment

Theory of Synthesizing Organic Compounds on Early Earth

Earth's atmosphere had little oxygen and lots of water vapor

As Earth cooled down much of the water vapor condensed into oceans and Hydrogen escaped into space

Volcanoes erupted under the sea, releasing gases

Gases in the bubbles reacted with the atmosphere to create organic molecules

Bubbles released contents into the air

Sun's UV radiation and other energy sources to form more complex organic molecules

More complex organic molecules fell back into the sea in raindrops and process repeats

Jumpstart of Biological Evolution

Synthesis of Amino Acids & Nitrogenous Bases

Protein and Nucleic Acids Formation

Maintaining of Internal Chemistry Different From Their Surroundings

Enzymes That Can Copy DNA

Inheritance

Ribosomes are RNAs That Can Copy Themselves

DNA took over RNA as main nucleic acid because of its stability in a double helix structure

Vacuole

Vesicle

Unit 2

Cell Membranes

Plasma Membrane

Phospholipid Bilayer

Hydrophilic Head/ Polar

Hydrophobic Tail/ Non-Polar

Specific Heat Transitions

Below 32 degrees Celsius

Gel

Above 32 Degrees Celsius

Fluid

Cholesterol

Prevents clumping when colder and prevent spreading when hotter

Proteins

Transport/Transmembrane Proteins

Aquaporin

Helps Water go through easily

Facilitated Diffusion

N-Termius and C-Terminus

Alpha Helicases

Co-transport Chain

Proton down Concentration Gradient

Sucrose down Concentration Gradient

Proton Pump

Requires ATP

Selective Permeability

Ions

Polar

Non-Polar

Large Molecules

Exocytosis

Leaving in Bulk

Endocytosis

Phagocytosis

Pinocytosis

Receptor Mediated

Cell Communication

Physical Contact

Local Signaling

Releasing Signals

Local Signaling

Paracrine Signaling

Synaptic Signaling

Membrane Potential

Ca 2+ makes vesciles

Neurotransmitter opens the ligand gated ion channel

Long Distance

Blood Stream

Hormonal Streaming

Signal Molecule

Receptor

Membrane Receptor

Intracelluar Receptor

Aldosterone

GPCR

G-Protein

Adenylyl Cyclase

cAMP

Protein Kinase A

Phosphodiesterase

Tyrosine Kinase Receptor

Phosphorylated

Ion Channel

Signal Molecule Binds

Stages of Signaling

Reception

Transduction

Response

Amplifies Signal

Kinase

Phosphatase

Energy Transformations

Photosynthesis

Calvin Cycle

Carbon fixation

inorganic CO2

organic CO2

ATP and NADPH

CO2 to G3P

ADP, Pi, and NADP+

light reaction

rubisco

Stromata

light reactions

thylakoid membrane

chemical energy

H2O --> H+

O2

NADP+

NADPH

atmosphere

ADP

ATP

a phosphate group to ADP

phosphorylation

O2 + C6H12O6

How cell make energy

Cell Respiration

Pyruvate Oxidative

Citric Acid Cycle

Organic molecules (glucose)

1 molecule of glucose brings about 30-32 ATP molecules

Glycolysis

1 glucose

2 pyruvate

2 ATP

2 NADH

Oxidative Phosphorylation

Oxidative

ATP Synthase

Electron transport chain

FADH2

NADH

Electron transport and pumping out H+ which create an H+ gradient across the membrane

Chemiosmosis

ATP synthesis powered by the flow of H+ back across the membrane

26-28 ATP

Oxygen

Carbon Dioxide

Energy (ATP and heat)

Water

Unit 3

translation

initiation

small ribosomal unit

mRNA

tRNA + anticodon

amino acid

aminoacyl tRNA synthase

elongation

codon recognition

adds amino acids

peptide bonds

chain gets longer

peptidyl transferase

termination

stop codon recognized

release factor sent

translation

free polypeptide is released

DNA

Replication

Origin of Replication

Replication Fork

Bi-directional

5'-3'

Leading Strand

Lagging strand behind with Okazai Fragments

Mainly contains A's and T's

2 Hydrogen bonds

Prokaroytes

Single ORI and it is Circular

Eukaryotes

Multiple ORI

Proteins

Helicase

Breaks the double strand through hydrogen bonding

Topisomerase

Helps relieve the stress of breaking the double strand

Single Strand Binding Proteins

help keep the strands separated

Primase

Adds Primer to the strand

RNA Primer

DNA Polymerase III

5'-3'

Needs Primer

Proofreading function

Adds DNA Nucleotides from the primer

DNA Polymerase I

Adds DNA nucleotides to the RNA nucleotides

DNA Ligase

Joins the lagging strand together through phophosdiester bonds

Transcription

Prokaryotes

RNA Polymerase

Acts as a Helicase and Primer

Termination Site

Coupled

Cytoplasm

mRNA only

Eukaryotes

Not coupled

Nucleus

pre-mRNA

mRNA

Transcription Factors

Transcription intiation complex

TATA Box

DNA Polymerase II

Acts like a Helicase and Primer

Use the 3'-5' Template Strand

Regulation

Eukaryotes

Specific Transcription Factors

Activators

Increase Gene Expression

Inducers

Decrease Gene Expression

General Transcription Factors

Basal (background) Expression

DNA bending protein

Activators to bind to distal control elements

RNA polymerase binds to promoter

Prokaryotes

Operators

lac Operon

E. coli

Lactose binds to inhibitor, so it doesn't bind to the operator

cAMP formed

CAP active

promoted RNA polymerase binding

Allows transcription

Glucose blocks function of adenylyl cyclase

cAMP not formed

CAP inactive

Transcription blocked

lac z

beta galactosidase

lac y

loctose permease

lac a

Transacetylase

protein pathways

free ribosome

nucleus

peroxisome

mitochondria

plastids

rough ER

golgi apparatus

secreted

plasma membrane

lysosomes

signal peptidase