Polysaccharides
Storage
Starch
Amylopectin
Glycogen
Dextran
Branched
Straight
Structure
Cellulose
Chitin
Fat Molecule
Triaglycerol
Glycerol
Fatty Acid (Palmitic Acid)
Hydrophobic (C-H Bonds. Nonpolar)
Saturated
Solid
Unsaturated
Liquid
Trans
Alternating H
Cis
Same Side H
Phospholipids
Polar/Hydrophilic Head
Hydrophobic Tail
Create C Double Bonds (Kink)
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
Directs Own Replication
Allows as Base for mRNA Synthesis
mRNA
Gene Expression (Protein Synthesis)
Complementary Base Pairing (Double Strand)
Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
Nucleotides
ar
Phosphodiester Bond
Phosphate
Deoxyribose Sugar
Base
Pyrimidines
Thymine (T)
Cytosine (C)
Uracil (C)
r
RNA Only (Replace Thymine)
Purines
Guanine (G)
Adenine (A)
Ribose Sugar
Enyzmatic
Defensive
Storage
Transport
Structural
Contractile/Motor
Hormonal
Receptor
Amino Group
Carboxyl Group
Ionized
R Groups
Nonpolar
H, CH, CH2, CH3, H2C, H3C
Polar
OH, NH2, SH, CO
Acidic
Negative Charge
Basic
Positive Charge
Disulfide
Ion Dipole
Hydrogen Bonding
Hydrophobic
Ionic
ConnectionsNucleus Relationship to Eukaryotic Cells: The relationship between the nucleus and eukaryotic cells is that all eukaryotic cells contain a nucleus where they store their DNA and control gene expression. Nucleus Relationship to the nucleolus, nuclear envelope/membrane, chromatin, centrioles, and nuclear lamina (TEM)The nucleus connects to the nucleolus, nuclear envelope/ membrane, chromatin, centrioles, and nuclear lamina (TEM) because the nucleus has inside all of these organelles. Nucleolus Relationship to Nucleus: The relationship between the nucleolus and nucleus is that the nucleolus is located in the nucleus and assembles ribosomes in the nucleus.Nuclear Envelope/ Membrane Relationship to Nucleus: The relationship between the nuclear envelope and the nucleus is that it is a structural framework/ support system for the nucleus. Nuclear Envelope/ Membrane Relationship to Nuclear Lamina (TEM)The relationship between the nuclear lamina and the nuclear envelope is that the nuclear lamina provides support to the nuclear membrane so it won't collapse and die. Chromatin Relationship to Nucleus: The relationship between chromatin and the nucleus is that the DNA of the nucleus helps make up chromatin which helps make chromosomes when cells divide. Centrioles' Relationship to Nucleus: The relationship between centrioles and the nucleus is that the centrioles determine the position of the nucleus. Centriole's Relationship to Chromatin:The relationship between centrioles and chromatin both help the process of cell division in the nucleus.
Free Ribosome's relationship to Ribosomes:Free Ribosome's relationship to ribosomes is that its one type of ribosome based on its location in the cytosol.Bound relationship to Ribosomes:Bound Ribosome's relationship to ribosomes is that its the second type of ribosome that is based on being in the Rough ER and the nuclear membrane.
Cytoplasm/ Cytosol Relationship to Eukaryotic Cells:The cytoplasm is present in all eukaryotic cells that carry out complex metabolic reactions and provides support to the organelle's structures.
Peroxisomes' relationship to the Endoplasmic Reticulum:Peroxisomes' relationship to the Endoplasmic Reticulum is that peroxisomes emerge from the ER.
Mitonchondria Relationship to the Eukaryotic cell: The mitochondria' relationship to the eukaryotic cell is the powerhouse of the cell because they generate energy (ATP).
Plasma Membrane relationship to Eukaryotic Cells:The plasma membrane's relationship to eukaryotic cells is that it provides protection.
Golgi Apparatus relationship to the Endoplasmic Reticulum:The Golgi Apparatus' relationship to the Endoplasmic Reticulum is that it receives proteins and lipids (fats) from the ER.
Cilia's relationship to the plasma membrane : Cilia's relationship to the plasma membrane is that cilia extend from the plasma membrane.
Flagellums' Relationship to the plasma membrane:The Flagellums' relationship to the plasma membrane is that it also extends from the plasma membrane.
Lysosomes' relationship to Golgi Apparatus: Lysosomes' relationship to Golgi Apparatus is that the Golgi Apparatus receives protein enzymes from the ER, which are packed in a vesicle in the Golgi Apparatus, processed, and then pinched off as a lysosome.
Vacuoles Relationship to Golgi Apparatus:Vacuoles' relationship with the Golgi apparatus is that it is derived from the Golgi and gives rise to the organelle. Vacuoles' Relationship to the Endoplasmic Reticulum: Vacuoles' Relationship with the ER is that it is derived from it and membrane/ proteins produced by the ER move via transport vessels.
Smooth ER relationship to the Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):The Smooth ER's relationship to the endoplasmic reticulum is that its part of the ER and helps with lipid synthesis modification.Rough ER relationship to the Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):Rough ER's relationship to the endoplasmic reticulum is that its part of the ER and helps with protein synthesis.
Cytoskeletons' relationship to eukaryotic cells:The cytoskeleton's relationship to eukaryotic cells is that it maintains the cell's shape and it is the anchorage for many organelles.
Phospolipids
Amphipathic
Nonpolar
Fatty Acids
Saturated
Unsaturated
Polar
Glycerol
Phosphate Groups
Transport
Signal Transduction
Intercellular Joining
Enzymatic activity
Cell-Cell Recognition
Attachment to cytoskeleton and the ECM
Alpha Helices
Tertiary Structure
Quarternary Structure
Non-Covalent Bonds Between Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic Surface Units
Hydrogen, Ionic, Dipole-Dipole
Beta Pleated Sheets
Hydrogen Bonds
Phospholipid Bilayer
Transmembrane Proteins
Transport
Passive Transport
Diffusion
No Energy Input
Facilitated
Aided by Proteins
Carrier
Channel
Hydrophilc Inside
Hydrophobic Outside
Osmosis
Water from Higher to Lower Concentration
Active Transport
Sodium/Potassium Pump
Open Sodium Pump
Depolarization
Open Potassium Pump
Hyperpolarization
Ion Channels
Gated
Stretch
Ligand
Voltage
Ungated
Concentration Gradient
Concentration from Low to High
Requires Energy Input
Cotransport
Indirect Transport of Other Molecules
Bulk Transport
Exocytic
Endocytic
Phagocytosis
Pinocytosis
Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis
Enzymatic
Signal
Cell Recognition
Intercellular Joining
Attach to CS and ECM
Alpha Helix
Extracellular N-Termiinus
Cytoplasmic C-Terminus
Selective Permeability
Store Energy for Cellular Work
Light Reaction
Photosystem II
O2
H20
Electron Transport Chain
Chemosmosis
ATP
Photosystem I
Noncyclic
NADPH:
Cyclic
No NADPH
Calvin cycle
Carbon Fixation (Phase 1)
3 phosphoglycerate
Reduction (Phase 2)
G3P (Sugar)
Regeneration of the CO2 Acceptor (Phase 3)
Accepts Polar Ligands
Accepts Nonpolar Ligands
Receptor
G Protein Coupled Receptor
Activated GPCR
Binds to G Protein
Activates G Protein
GTP
Binds to Adenylyl Cyclase
Active Adenylyl Cyclase
Converts ATP to cAMP (Second Messenger)
Activates Protein
Cellular Response
Hydrolyzed to GDP
Active Relay Molecule
Active Protein Kinase 1
Active Protein Kinase 2
Phosphorylated Protein
Cellular Response
Active Protein Enters Nucleus
Binds to Gene as Transcription Factor
mRNA Transcribed
Leaves Nucleus for Ribosome
Ribosome Creates Protein as Response
Tyrosine Kinase Receptors
Forms Dimer
6 ATP Activate Tyrosine Kinase Receptors
Phosphorylated Dimer
Active Relay Protein 1
Cellular Response 1
Active Relay Protein 2
Cellular Response 2
Epinephrine
Beta Receptor
Liver Cell
Glycogen Breakdown
Glucose Release
Blood Glucose Increase
Beta Receptor
Smooth Muscle Cell
Cell Relax
Blood Vessel Dilation
Increased Blood Flow to Skeletal Muscle
Electron Transport Chain
Complexes I,II,III,IV and Q
Glucose 6 phosphate converted to fructose 6-phosphate
Uses enzyme PFK (Phosphofructokinase) to convert fructose6phosphate to fructose1,6 bisPhosphate by transferring a phosphate group from ATP to the opposite end of the sugar, investing a second molecule of ATP^
Aldolase cleaves the sugar molecule into two different three-carbon sugars
6 carbon sugar splits into two molecules of 3 carbon each forming DHAP and G3P. Eventually DHAP converts G3P , so at the end we have 2 molecules of G3P from 1 molecule of glucose
Phosphate group is transferred to ADP (substrate-level phosphorylation) in an exergonic reaction. The carbonyl group of G3P has been oxidized to the carboxyl group (-COO-) of an organic acid (3- phosphoglycerate)
Enzyme relocates remaining phosphate group
Enolase causes a double bond to form in the substrate by extracting a water molecule, yielding phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) , compound with high potential energy
Phosphate group is transferred from PEP to ADP (second example of substrate- level phosphorylation) forming pyruvate
Acetyl Coenzyme A
Citric Acid Cycle/ Krebb's Cycle
inside mitochondrion
Isocitrate
Redox reaction: Isocitrate is oxidized; NAD+ is reduced
Redox reaction: After CO2 release, the resulting four- carbon molecule is oxidized (reducing NAD+), then made reactive by addition of CoA
There is an addition of a phosphate to Succinyl CoA which causes GTP to be released and bind with ADP which forms Succinate
Redox reaction: Succinate is oxidized; FAD is reduced
Addition of H20 to Fumarate
Malate
Redox reaction: Malate is oxidized, NAD is reduced
intermembrane space
ATP Synthesis
Proton motive force
Pi
ADP^
ATP
Chemiosmosis
Phosphate Group
Nitrogenous Base
Purines
2 Nitrogen Rings
Adenine
Guanine
Pyrimidines
1 Nitrogen Ring
Thymine (DNA)
Uracil (RNA)
Cytosine
Deoxyribose (DNA)/Ribose (RNA) Sugar
Replication Fork
Separate Double Strand of DNA
Helicase
Unwinds and Separates Parental DNA
Topoisomerase
Breaks, Swivels, and Rejoins DNA Ahead of Replication Fork Relieving Strain from Unwinding
SSB
Stabilize Unwound Parental Strands
Primase
Synthesize RNA Primers 5' Leading Strand
Form Okazaki Fragments of Lagging Strand
DNA Polymerase III
Bonds Nucleotides to Polymer
Removes 2 Phosphate from Nucleotide
Forms Phosphate Group/Backbone
2 Inorganic Phosphate Produced
Bind to RNA Primer
Polymerization 5' --> 3'
Also has DNA Polymerase I in Bacterial Replication
Remove RNA Nucleotides from Primer and Replaces with DNA Nucleotides at 5' End
Origin of Replication
Seals Gaps Between Fragments
mRNA
Immediately go to Translation Because of No Nucleus
Nuclear Envelope
Pre-mRNA
Goes Through RNA Processing
mRNA
5' Cap
Modified Guanine Nucleotide Added to 5' End
Protein Coding Segments
Start/Stop Codons
Polyadenylation Signal
50-250 Adenine Nucleotides Added to 3' End
Poly-A Tail
RNA Splicing
Introns Cut Out/Exons Spliced Together
Exons = Coding Segment
Alternate Splicing
Splice Together Exons But Can Leave Out 1 or More to Produce Different Proteins During Translation Through Different Exon Sequences
Upstream (Left = Negative)
Downstream (Right = Positive)
Direction of Transcription
Read/Template in 3' --> 5'
Can Be In or Directly After Promoter
RNA Polymerases
Binds to Promoter
DNA Unwinds and RNA Synthesis Begins
Prokaryotes
RNA Polymerase (RNAP)
Eukaryotes
RNA Polymerase II - pre-mRNA, snRNA, microRNA
snRNA + Spliceosome + Other Proteins
Spliceosome Components
mRNA
Cut-Out Intron
Splice Together Ends of Introns to Form a Ring and Join Exons Together, Introns Form Ring Separate from mRNA
Promoter Includes Nucleotide Sequence TATA Box
About 25 Nucleotides Upstream from Transcription Start Point
Transcription Factor Must Recognize Before Binding of RNA Polymerase II
Additional Transcription Factors Bind with RNA Polymerase to Form Transcription Initation Complex
Moves Downstream Unwinding DNA
Elongate RNA Transcript 5' --> 3'
In Wake DNA Reforms Double Helix
RNA Transcript Releases
Polymerase Detaches from DNA
mRNA is Released
Cleavage by Ribonuclease at 3' End
Poly-A Polymerase Adds 100-200 A's to 3' End Using ATP
Poly-A Tail
Prokaryotes: First tRNA carries formyl methionine; 30s and 50s = 70s ribosome; Has shine dalgarno. Eukaryotes: First tRNA carries methionine; 40s and 60s = 80s ribosome; Binds to 5' end until start codon. Both: Initiator tRNA binds to start codon and large ribosomal subunit joins to form initiation complex.
Polypeptide chains get longer; Ribosomes have 3 binding sites; First tRNA starts at the P site (anticodons of tRNA with codons of mRNA). The A site next to it allows for a tRNA to bind to matching codon forming a peptide bond and then shifting mRNA forward by a codon allowing the empty tRNA to exit through the E site.
Translation comes to an end; Occurs when a stop codon in the mRNA enters the A site. Proteins called release factors recognize stop codons (fit into p site).
Targeting Proteins to the ER
Polypeptide synthesis begins on free ribosomes in the cytosol
An SRP binds to the signal peptide, halting synthesis momentarily
SRP is a signal recognition particle and is made of RNA and proteins.
The SRP binds to a receptor protein in the ER membrane, part of a protein complex that forms a pore.
The SRP leaves, and polypeptide synthesis resumes, with simultaneous translocation across the membrane
The signal peptide is cleaved by an enzyme in the receptor protein complex
The rest of the completed polypeptide leaves the ribosome and folds into its final conformation.
-Both processes synthesis is completed on free ribosomes
1st way: ER (inside of cell "cytoplasm")
Summary: mRNA--> ribosome-> rough endoplasmic reticulum-->Golgi apparatus--> Lysosome--> Exocytosis
go through organelles
Mitochondria
chloroplasts
peroxisomes
nucleus
The Golgi pinches off transport vesicles and other vesicles that give rise to lysosomes, other types of specialized vesicles, and vacuoles.
The lysosome is available for fusion with another vesicle for digestion.
A transport vesicle carries proteins to the plasma membrane for secretion