Cells

Cellular differentiation

Different parts of DNA are used in different cells this affects the activity of the cells -this affects the activity of the cell

Cell become specialized and begin preforming a specific task

Stem cells

All organisms began as a single cell

This special stem cell has the potential to become any type of cell

Stem cells divide to form other cells in the organismorganism

All subsequent cells have the same DNA but different roles different roles

Cell specialization debate

Why do cells divide?

Cells may be worn out

Cell may be damaged

In order to reproduce

Mitosis

Prophase

The first stage of mitosis is prophase. The nucleus of the cell remains, but the nucleolus disappears( he nucleolus is the membrane that surrounds the nucleus and contains the genetic material). Centrosomes are made up of centrioles and microtubules. They make their way to the opposite ends of the cell. Each end is referred to as a pole. The mitotic spindle is formed by microtubules. The centrioles are where it attaches.

Metaphase

The nucleus' membrane dissolves as metaphase begins. The mitotic spindle completes its formation and binds to the chromosomal centromeres. The M in metaphase might help you recall that the spindles move the chromosomes to the centre of the cell at the conclusion of this phase.

Anaphase

The mitotic spindle contracts during anaphase. The two halves of the chromosomes, known as chromatids, are pushed apart. This results in the formation of daughter chromosomes. The A in anaphase might help you recall that the microtubules drive the daughter chromosomes apart and toward the poles during this phase. As a result, the cell begins to grow longer.

Telophase

The daughter chromosomes reach the cell's opposing poles during telophase. At each pole, two new nuclear membranes begin to develop. The cell continues to lengthen before narrowing in the centre. Both sets of chromosomes start to expand up and relax. The T in telophase might help you recall that there will be two new sets of genetic material at the conclusion of this cycle.

Scientific illustration

Interphase

G1 phase

G1- G1 is a transitional phase that occurs between the conclusion of cell division in mitosis and the start of DNA replication in S phase. The cell expands during this stage in preparation for DNA replication, and specific internal components, such as the centrosomes, perform replication. Before beginning DNA replication, a cell must establish that it is biologically capable of doing so. This cellular monitoring occurs during the G1 phase. The cell examines the cellular environment and cell size during G1 to ensure that the conditions are suitable for DNA replication. The cell does not exit G1 until it is ready. When the cell has grown to the proper size and is in a favourable environment for DNA replication, it will exit G1 and enter S phase.

S phase

The S phase, also known as synthesis, is when DNA packed into chromosomes is reproduced. Because replication permits each cell formed by cell division to have the same genetic make-up, it is an important part of the cell cycle. In addition to chromosomal replication, a variety of other activities occur during the S phase. During S phase, cell growth and the rate of synthesis of a number of proteins and enzymes involved in DNA synthesis both continue. When DNA replication is complete, the cell has twice as many chromosomes as before and is ready to enter the G2 phase.

G2

G2 is an intermediate phase, in which the cell checks to see if it is ready to go on in the cell cycle. G2 is a safety gap that occurs between the conclusion of DNA replication in S phase and the start of cell division in mitosis. It allows a cell to double-check that all of its DNA and other internal components have been correctly reproduced.

Plants

Organs

Root

Leaves

Stem

Body

Leaf

Most of the leaf is made from mesophyll

Mesophyll cells are a type of ground tissue found in the plant's leaves. The most important role of the mesophyll cells is in photosynthesis. Mesophyll cells are large spaces within the leaf that allow carbon dioxide to move freely.

Carbon dioxide enters, and oxygen and excess water exit through openings in the leaf epidermal tissue called stomata

Stem

Transports water and nutrients throughout the plant

supports the leaves and flowers

The sugar produced is carried by the vascular tissues to the rest of the plan

Root

meristematic tissue, which allows the root to grow

Helps anchor the plant into the soil

Collects water and nutrients from soil around it

Stores food

bottom of the root is covered with protective epidermal tissue known as the root cap

Tissues

Epidermal

The epidermis, a single layer of cells that covers the exterior of a plant, is made up of dermal tissue. The epidermis can be compared to the skin of a plant. It mediates the majority of a plant's interactions with its surroundings. Cuticle is a waxy material produced by epidermal cells that covers, waterproofs, and protects the above-ground sections of plants. Cuticle protects the skin from water loss, abrasions, infections, and toxins.

Ground

Ground tissue makes up a large portion of a plant's interior and performs basic metabolic activities. In stems, ground tissue provides support and can store food or water. Food may be stored in the ground tissues of roots.

Vascular

Inside a plant, vascular tissue passes through the ground tissue. Plants, of course, lack hearts, but they do contain vessels that carry water, minerals, and nutrients throughout the plant. These vessels, which are made up of xylem and phloem, make up the vascular tissue.

Animals

Epithelial tissue

Epithelial tissues are made up of cells that line tubes and cavities and cover surfaces (such as the skin) (e.g. digestive organs, blood vessels, kidney tubules and airways). Epithelial tissue normally consists of a single layer of cells, however there may be more than one layer in some situations.

Connective tissue

Connective tissue is a type of biological tissue that supports, connects, and separates various tissues and organs in the animal. Cells, fibres (such as collagen), and extracellular matrix make up all connective tissue. Distinct connective tissues have different types of intercellular matrix. Connective tissues come in a variety of shapes and sizes, each with its own set of functions.

Nervous tissue

Nervous tissue is made up of cells that make up the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system. Nervous tissue makes up the brain and spinal cord in the central nervous system. The cranial nerves and spinal nerves, which comprise sensory and motor neurons, are formed by neural tissue in the peripheral nervous system. Nerve tissue's job is to carry nerve impulses throughout the body.

Muscle tissue

Muscle tissue is divided into three types: skeletal, smooth, and cardiac.

Skeletal muscle

It has a striated aspect to it. Bundles of skeletal muscle tissue are grouped in a regular pattern. Tendons anchor it, and it's utilised to control skeletal muscle activity like motility and preserve posture. Muscles can respond to conscious control as well as reflex activity.

Smooth muscle

Smooth muscle is a non-striated, involuntary muscle with tapering ends. It can be found inside the walls of blood vessels like arteries and veins. Smooth muscle can also be found in the gastrointestinal tract, urinary tract, and trachea. It is in charge of involuntary rhythmic peristalsis contractions, which are necessary for transporting food through the alimentary canal, as well as the dilatation and development of blood vessels to manage blood pressure.

Cardiac muscle

Cardiac muscle is the most important component of the heart. It's a striated involuntary muscle with a striated appearance. Cardiovascular muscle, unlike skeletal muscle, links at branching, uneven angles. The interconnected branches aid in cardiac contraction coordination.

render the details visible to the eye,camera, or other imaging device (contrast)

separate the details in the image(resolution).

produce a magnified image of the specimen(magnification)

Function

Its basic function is to gather the light passing through thespecimen and then to project an accurate, real, inverted IMAGE ofthe specimen up into the body of the microscope.

Magnification activity

Historic microscopes

Tissues

Tissue is a group of cells that have similar structure and that function together as a unit.

There are four main tissue types in the body: epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous. Each is designed for specific functions.

Cells make up tissues, tissues make up organs, and organs make up organ systems. The function of an organ system depends on the integrated activity of its organs

Organ systems

Organ systems include:

Respiratory system

Your lungs are part of the respiratory system, a group of organs and tissues that work together to help you breathe. The respiratory system's main job is to move fresh air into your body while removing waste gases.

Digestive system

The digestive system is made up of organs that are important for digesting food and liquids. These include the mouth, pharynx (throat), esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, and anus.

Circulatory system

The circulatory system is made up of blood vessels that carry blood away from and towards the heart. Arteries carry blood away from the heart and veins carry blood back to the heart. The circulatory system carries oxygen, nutrients, and hormones to cells, and removes waste products, like carbon dioxide.

Lymphatic system

Skeletal system

Subtopic

Organs

An organ is a group of tissues with similar functions.

An organ is made up of 2 different types of tissue

Some organs include:

Brains

Heart

Lungs

Stomach

Kidneys

Quotes

History of Cancer

Some of the earliest evidence of cancer is found among fossilized bone tumors, human mummies in ancient Egypt, and ancient manuscripts.

The famous Scottish surgeon John Hunter (1728-1793) suggested that some cancers might be cured by surgery and described how the surgeon might decide which cancers to operate on. If the tumor had not invaded nearby tissue and was “moveable,” he said, “There is no impropriety in removing it.”

Gentics

Inherited genetic mutations play a major role in about 5 to 10 percent of all cancers. Researchers have associated mutations in specific genes with more than 50 hereditary cancer syndromes, which are disorders that may predispose individuals to developing certain cancers.

Dear 14 year old me

Causes

Cancer is caused by changes (mutations) to the DNA within cells. The DNA inside a cell is packaged into a large number of individual genes, each of which contains a set of instructions telling the cell what functions to perform, as well as how to grow and divide.

Mutations may occur due to:

Smoking

Tanning

Exposure to dangerous chemicals

Genetics

Toxic envrioments

Basel Cell Carcinoma

Treatments

Surgery. The goal of surgery is to remove the cancer or as much of the cancer as possible.

Chemotherapy. Chemotherapy uses drugs to kill cancer cells.
Radiation therapy. Radiation therapy uses high-powered energy beams, such as X-rays or protons, to kill cancer cells.

Immunotherapy. Immunotherapy, also known as biological therapy, uses your body's immune system to fight cancer.

Hormone therapy. Some types of cancer are fueled by your body's hormones, removing those hormones from the body or blocking their effects may cause the cancer cells to stop growing.

Radiofrequency ablation. This treatment uses electrical energy to heat cancer cells, causing them to die.

Clinical trials. Clinical trials are studies to investigate new ways of treating cancer. Thousands of cancer clinical trials are underway.

Cryoablation. This treatment kills cancer cells with cold.

Targeted drug therapy. Targeted drug treatment focuses on specific abnormalities within cancer cells that allow them to survive.

Bone marrow transplant. Your bone marrow is the material inside your bones that makes blood cells from blood stem cells. A bone marrow transplant allows your doctor to use higher doses of chemotherapy to treat your cancer.

Defintion

Cancer is a disease in which some of the body’s cells uncontrollably divide, due to a mutation in the cell, therefore, causing a tumour.

This division is precisely regulated and the regulation process can be fulfilled by tumour suppressor genes or protooncogenes.

There are many forms of cancer and it can start almost anywhere in the human body.

Cancer is caused by changes (mutations) to the DNA within cells. The DNA inside
a cell is packaged into a large number of individual genes, each of which contains a set of instructions telling the cell what functions to perform, as well as how to grow and divide. Errors in the instructions can cause the cell to stop its normal function and may allow a cell to become cancerous.