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and

CELL MEMBRANE

Structure

Phospholipid bilayer

Hydrophilic head

Hydrophobic tail

integral Proteins

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They allow molecules like glucose and oxygen to enter the cell, the same way carbon dioxide and water need to exit through the proteins in the membrane, which helps facilitate their movement.

channel proteins

carrier proteins

Aquaporins

Kidney

Nephrons

distal tubule

urine

Bownsman capsule

filtrate

glomerulus

Blood

convulated tubule

fluid balance

hormones

loop of Henle

water reabsorption

Sodium potassium pump

ATP

mitochondria

protein receptors

Glands

target cells

Function

Transport

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Examples of things that are transported into the cell membrane are: Glucose Sodium potassium uncharged molecules charged molecules polar and non-polar substances macromolecules

Active

Passive

Simple diffusion

Facilitated diffusion

Osmosis

water

Photosyntheisis

Light dependent reaction

light energy

H2O

chlorophyl

NAD+

light independent reaction

CO2

NADPH

ATP

glucose

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Light Reactions (in thylakoid membrane):Use light energy and water (H₂O).Produce ATP and NADPH (energy carriers).Release oxygen (O₂) as a by-product. Calvin Cycle (in stroma):Uses CO₂, ATP, and NADPH.Produces G3P (a sugar precursor).G3P is used to make starch (storage) or sucrose (export).

Cell signalling

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The specific structure of the cell membrane helps in the process of signalling

Glycolipids

nerve signals

Nueron

central nervous system

Brain

Hypothalamus

pituray gland

hormones

neural pathways

Autonomic nervous system

parasympathetic

rest or digets

Acetylcholine

neurotransmitter

synapse

neuron axon terminal

axon terminal

sympathetic

fight or flight

norepinephrine/epinephrine.

Feed back loops

negtaive feed back loop

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After eating, blood glucose levels rise.The pancreas releases insulin, which helps cells absorb glucose and signals the liver to store glucose as glycogen.As a result, blood glucose levels decrease back to normal.When blood glucose levels drop too low, the pancreas releases glucagon, which signals the liver to convert glycogen back into glucose, raising blood glucose levels.This cycle maintains homeostasis, keeping blood glucose levels within a normal range.

positive feed back loop

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The areola's nerves are stimulated by baby suckles.Oxytocin is released by the pituitary gland in the brain.Milk-producing cells force milk into ducts in response to oxytocin.It is the nipple that releases milk.More sucking results in more milk being released, creating a positive feedback loop.

Spinal cord

Action potential

Deporalization

Resting membrane phase

Reporalization

Hyperplarization

Glycoproteins

Biomolcules

Carbohydrtaes

Glucose

Cellular respiration

Glycolysis

2 NADH

4 ATP

pyruvate oxidation

2 NADH

2CO2

Acetyl CoA

Krebs cycle

2 ATP

6 NADH

4CO2

2 FADH2

Electron transport chain

10 NAD+

32 ATP

2 FAD

6 H20

ATP Synthase

Coenzymes

NADH

FADH2

``````````

``````````

fermentation

oxygen

Lactic acid

2 net ATP

Alcohol

2 Net ATP

lipids

Cholesterol

Cellulose

Triglyceride

Proteins

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examples Collagen insulin hemoglobin enzymes

Nucleic acids

DNA

DNA Replication

Identical DNA

5' to 3'

Transcription

RNA

tRNA

Anticodons

Amino acid

polypeptide chain

mRNA

codons

RNA polymerase

nucleotide bases

Adenine

thymine

Guanine

cytosin

Uracil

Template strand

coding strand

Translation

protein synthesis