AS/A2 AQA Geography

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Some points to think aboutExam questions will strongly stick to the wording of the Spec in the early part of the exam cycle (for example: describe/discuss/suggest reasons for regional variations in health and morbidity in the UK). The word 'Comment' will be used a lot in questions - look at data and make a geographical comment that is reasonable and appropriateThe official text book is around a 'C' level, while the unofficial brown text book is written around a 'B' level. A mark a minute - students must not feel restricted by the given space for answers for extended questions - they should be encouraged to write on extra paper if necessary.15 mark questions will be very broad and introduce high level command words. Recommends not worrying too much about introduction, but MUST include conclusion that directly links back to command words and question. Unless asked, don't do a diagram More opportunities for pupils to read texts during examsBullet points are NOT acceptableCase studies must give a sense of place All accounts of a case study must start with the name of the case study. You can interpret 'contrasting case studies' yourself - suggested contrasting could refer to 'scale', 'economic' or 'response'. Be prepared to be able to compare them. If it says 'two' case studies, then that is all you need - ideally within last 20-30 years but not specified as wants to give flexibility. Oxbow lakes were left off spec - so they can't ask direct questions, but pupils could mention them in relation to lower course of river. DTM likely to come up early in cycleSpec does not specify theories so can't ask specific questions about e.g. Malthus - so no need to study Boserup, Malthus, Club of Rome and Lomborg - just a couple. But they could though ask "what theories can explain .... " . If studying one child policy bring it up to date (but they can't take marks off for say only talking about policy up to 2002). Recommended looking at recent earthquake in China in relation to population policySuggested looking at policies to increase births - such as Russia. Should look at both positive and negative views on population. Settlement case studies recommends UK suggested: (1) retirement community and impact on settlement and services (2) Young professionals moving into e.g . Leeds centre. Global - National - Local viewsSocial Provision - this refers to how people lead their lives (housing, employment, education, health and leisure etc.) and how this is impacted by their community. Energy Issues • Must look at global - national - localGEOG2MUST use their definitions for skills such as 'desire lines' and 'trip lines' - not "Maths" defintionsQuestions are likely to be quite general at start of the cycle. Note that the spec does not talk about secondary/primary data it mentions sources. You can therefore get primary data from secondary sources (such as census). Difference between 'presentation' and 'analysis' - gave the example that creating a scatter graph is 'presentation' but drawing line of best fit is 'analysis'. Both AS and A2 are guaranteed to have questions on health and safety. OS Maps should be at both 1:15,OOO and 1:50,000 scale.All formula will be provided, with the exception of 'mean'.GIS will be very general at start of the exam cycle - e.g. "How did you use GIS in your studies". Best fit line but not regression: only a straight line. GCSE would be just put a trend line - AS would be to explain how you decided upon the right place to the put the line. Must look at BOTH qualitative and quantitative during fieldwork. e.g. using Google Earth to make qualitative comments on the riverMust look at "why did we bother collecting the data" - there must be a reason - think about groups of people that might benefit from the data.Must use the first person "I" or "we" in answers about fieldwork. Must use null hypothesis, but only need to do two hypotheseMust consider - theory, concept and idea - you have to compare results the what you expected to get.Anomalies are very important - they often get overlooked.

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AQA AS

GEOG1

Population Change

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GlossaryPopulationBirth rate: The crude birth rate is the number of births in a single year per 1000 of the population. More refined measures are the standardised birth rate and the general fertility rateDeath rate: The crude death rate is the number of deaths in a single year per 1000 of the population. More refined measures are the agespecific mortality rate and the infant mortality rate.Demographic transition model: A model of the change in birth rates, death rates and overall population size over time, usually linked to the process of economic development.Dependency ratio: The ratio of elderly (over 65 years) and young (under 15 years) people to the total adult (15-64 years) population.Epidemiological transition: The change from a pattern of mainly infectious to degenerative diseases.Ethnic group: A group of people distinguished by a common char-acteristic or set of characteristics related variously to race, nationality, language, religion or other cultural features.Migration: The movement of people to a permanent or semi-permanent new place of residence in response to push or pull factors. Internal migration ocurs within single countries; international migration involves the crossing of national borders.Population density: The arithmetic population density is the number of people living in a given area, measured in persons per km2 or in hectares. Variations relating to available resources and the amount of agricultural or residential land are also used.Overcrowding: A measure of the number of people per room in a dwelling.Population pressure: The relationship between the population of an area and the local resources at its disposal, especially the capacity to produce food.Social exclusion: The idea that a minority of people is excluded from the benefits of society by virtue of poverty, powerlessness, unemployment, lack of mobility, or lack of qualifications.Sustainable development: Development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs.U.N. Definitions of demographic variablesPopulation De facto population in a country, area or region as of 1 July of the year indicated. Figures are presented in thousands.Population density Population per square Kilometre.Urban population De facto population living in areas classified as urban according to the criteria used by each area or country. Data refer to 1 July of the year indicated and are presented in thousands.Rural population De facto population living in areas classified as rural (that is, it is the difference between the total population of a country and its urban population). Data refer to 1 July of the year indicated and are presented in thousands.Percentage urban Urban population as a percentage of the total population.Percentage rural Rural population as a percentage of the total population.Population sex ratio Number of males per 100 females in the population.Median age Age that divides the population in two parts of equal size, that is, there are as many persons with ages above the median as there are with ages below the median.Population change Population increment over a period, that is, the difference between the population at the end of the period and that at the beginning of the period. Refers to five-year periods running from 1 July to 30 June of the initial and final years. Data are presented in thousands.Population growth rate Average exponential rate of growth of the population over a given period. It is calculated as ln(Pt/P0)/t where t is the length of the period. It is expressed as a percentage.Rate of natural increase Crude birth rate minus the crude death rate. Represents the portion of population growth (or decline) determined exclusively by births and deaths.Crude birth rate Number of births over a given period divided by the person-years lived by the population over that period. It is expressed as number of births per 1,000 population.Crude death rate Number of deaths over a given period divided by the person-years lived by the population over that period. It is expressed as number of deaths per 1,000 population.Net reproduction rate The average number of daughters a hypothetical cohort of women would have at the end of their reproductive period if they were subject during their whole lives to the fertility rates and the mortality rates of a given period. It is expressed as number of daughters per woman.Total fertility The average number of children a hypothetical cohort of women would have at the end of their reproductive period if they were subject during their whole lives to the fertility rates of a given period and if they were not subject to mortality. It is expressed as children per woman.Life expectancy by sex The average number of years of life expected by a hypothetical cohort of individuals who would be subject during all their lives to the mortality rates of a given period. It is expressed as years.Net migration rate The number of immigrants minus the number of emigrants over a period, divided by the person-years lived by the population of the receiving country over that period. It is expressed as net number of migrants per 1,000 population.Net migration Net number of migrants, that is, the number of immigrants minus the number of emigrants. It is expressed as thousands.Sex ratio at birth Number of male births per one female birth.Births by age group of mother Number of births over a given period classified by age group of mother (15-19, 20-24, 25-29, 30-34…..45-49). Refers to five-year periods running from 1 July to 30 June of the initial and final years. Data are presented in thousands.Age-specific fertility rates Number of births to women in a particular age group, divided by the number of women in that age group. The age groups used are: 15-19, 20-24,….45-49. The data refer to five-year periods running from 1 July to 30 June of the initial and final years.Women aged 15-49 Number of women aged 15-49 as of 1 July of the year indicated, and that number as a percentage of the total female population as of 1 July of the year indicated. The number of women is presented in thousands.Infant mortality Probability of dying between birth and exact age 1. It is expressed as deaths per 1,000 births.Mortality under age 5 Probability of dying between birth and exact age 5. It is expressed as deaths per 1,000 births.Dependency ratios The total dependency ratio is the ratio of the sum of the population aged 0-14 and that aged 65+ to the population aged 15-64. The child dependency ratio is the ratio of the population aged 0-14 to the population aged 15-64. The old-age dependency ratio is the ratio of the population aged 65 years or over to the population aged 15-64. All ratios are presented as number of dependants per 100 persons of working age (15-64).

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Rivers and River Management

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GlossaryHydrologyAnnual hydrograph: A graph showing average river flows over the yearAquifer: A relatively impermeable rock layer which defines the boundaries of an aquiferAquiclude: A relatively impermeable rock layer which defines the boundaries of an aquifer.Baseflow: The movement of water through rocks deep undergroundBourne: An intermittent or seasonal stream, unusually found in chalk areas, the length of which varies according to the height of the watertable.Contour ploughing: Ploughing around a hill rather than up and down its slopes.Cover crop: A crop grown to protect the soil from erosion.Crumb structure: Small peds, about 1-5mm in size, associated with loam soilsEphemeral stream: A temporary stream, often seasonal in nature, which flows only when torrential rainfall or high groundwater conditions occur.Falling limb: The declining curve on a hydrograph. The shape of this curve reflects both the catchment area water stores and the shape and relief of the basin.Flood hydrograph: A graph showing the response of river flow to a single rainfall event.Hydrograph: A graph showing the change in river flow with time.Pipeflow: A rapid movement of water in subterranean channels (pipes) in the soil. Common in peaty soils.Percolation: The process by which water in the soil store moves down to deeper groundwater stores.Surface runoff: Water flowing across the surface. May include either saturated overland flow or infiltration excess overland flow.Recharge: The process by which water in an aquifer is replenished.Recurrence interval: A statistical average relating to the timingResurgent stream: A stream that emerges from underground, usually at the base of a limestone outcrop.Rising limb: The initial rising curve on a flood hydrograph. The steepness of the curve depends on the intensity of the rainfall and the character of the basin.Runoff: Water flow generated by a rainfall event (or, in some regions, by snowmelt).Saturated overland flow: Overland flow in those parts of the drainage basin that have become saturated so water cannot soak into the soil.Stemflow: The movement of water from interception storage (on vegetation) to the soil store via plant stems or tree trunks.Storm hydrograph: See flood hydrograph.Throughfall: The movement of water from interception storage (on vegetation) to the soil store by dripping from vegetation.Throughflow: The movement of water horizontally through the soil and subsoil.Transmissivity: The rate at which water can move through an aquifer.Transpiration: Movement of water from the soil store back to the atmosphere as a result of biological processes in plants.Water balance graph: A graph showing the relative balance of precipitation and evapotranspiration throughout the year.Water-table: The variable upper surface of the saturated zone in permeable rocks.Watershed: The boundary formed by the highest points between one drainage basin and the next.

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Hot desert environments and their margins

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HOT DESERT ENVIRONMENTS AND THEIR MARGINS – GLOSSARYEvapotranspiration- The process by which water is transferred from the land to the atmosphere by evaporation from the soil and other surfaces and by transpiration from plants. Potential Evapotranspiration- the amount of water that would have been evaporated if enough was available.Diurnal Range- Difference between The high daytime temperature and low night temperature.Humus- the organic component of soil, formed by the decomposition of leaves and other plant material by soil microorganismsHorizons- a layer of soil or rock, or a set of strata, with particular characteristicsEphemeral Plants- Drought avoidant plants, they produce seeds that lie dormant for long periods between rainfall, and when rain does arrive they can germinate, flower and produce seeds very quickly.Xerophytes- Plants that have adapted to survive with minimum amounts of water. They have thin, tough, spiky leaves and tough bark to reduce water loss through transpiration.Phreatophytes- Water seeking plants, they send out long roots to tap water deep underground.Exfoliation- During large diurnal ranges the rocks on the surface expand in the heat and contract in the cold. This stresses the rock and causes the outer layers to crack and peel away.Salt Weathering- Salt Is dissolved and brought to the surface by water. When the water evaporates, salt crystals can form and force the rock apart.Duricrust- A hard mineral crust formed at or near the surface of the soil in semiarid regions by the evaporation of groundwater.Differential Expansion- When a rock is made up of various minerals. When heated the minerals expand at different rates. This adds stress to the rock.Surface Creep- (Coarse sand and pebbles) Wind rolls heavier particles along the surface.Saltation- (Fine sand) occurs when the wind speed increases. Saltation will occur as long as the particles are light enough for the wind to be able to lift and as long as they are lying so that the wind can get underneath them and lift them. Suspension- (dust) occurs when very fine material is picked up and raised high into the air. This produces a Dust Storm. Loess- When material from a dust storm is deposited it produces very fine material known as Loess. Deflation- The gradual removal of fine sand particles by the wind, leaving pebble-strewn surfaces or flat rock surfaces called Desert Pavements or Reg (In the Sahara). Deflation Hollows- formed where there is structural downwarping of the rock surface by Deflation.Abrasion- (sandblasting)Yardangs- formed where hard and soft rock run parallel to the direction of the prevailing wind. The wind erodes the softer rock and leaves the hard ridges standing as Yardangs. Zeugen- Similar in appearance to Yardangs but they are formed on horizontal bedded structures rather than vertical beds. Often form when surface develops a hard duricrust. Wind abrasion can quickly enter the cracks and erode the softer rock.Sandy Desert- (Erg) undulating plain of sand, moulded by the wind.Stony Desert- (Reg/Serir) plain covered with angular pebbles and gravel that cannot be moved.Rocky Desert- (Hamada) has been stripped of loose material by deflation.Barchan- Type of sand dune with a crescent shape. Up to 30m in height, they migrate forward in the direction of the wind. Crescent shape because horn move faster in the wind than the centre of the dune.Exogenous Streams- erode similarly to humid latitude rivers, but erode more vertially than laterally. Can from steep valleys with cliff edges (Grand Canyon).Endoreic Streams- Rise outside the desert area and then flow into the desert area. They do not continue to flow but run into inland lakes or dry up. They can sometimes form Playas. Ephemeral Streams- can rise and fall very quickly (flash flood) they have a short lag time and high peak flow because of the torrential rain and the little vegetation which would generally absorb the water. The surfaces are often hard and impermeable due to the high temperatures that bake the duricrust, which inhibits infiltration.Pediments- form at the foot of cliffs. They are gently slopping surfaces (2-7 degrees) either cut in solid rock or covered with a thin layer of debris- sand or pebbles. The material on the pediment usually gets finer with distance from the foot of the cliff.Playas- are often found at the foot of pediments. They are ephemeral lakes which are fed by endoreic streams which flood occasionally and then dry up, leaving behind a bed of salt and very fine sediment.Salination- happens when water infiltrates into the soil or rock and is then evaporated by the heat. While the water is in the ground it dissolves salts from the rock or soil in a chemical reaction that is sped up by the high temperatures. When the water is drawn back to the surface and then evaporated, the salts are deposited at the surface. Mesa- is a fairly extensive, flat topped, steep-sided hill that remains after the surrounding rocks have been eroded away.Butte- is a smaller version of a mesa, or a mesa that has been eroded until it has almost been completely removed, or a small, detached section of a mesa.Inselberg- is a more rounded and smooth-sided version of a mesa or butte. Often they are formed in unbedded, crystalline, volcanic or metamorphic rocks, whereas mesas are formed in flat-bedded sedimentary rocks or lava flows. Arid: “being without moisture; extremely dry; barren or unproductive because of lack of moisture; a place receiving less than 250mm of annual rainfall”.Aridity Index:< -57 = hyper-arid. < -40 = arid. < -20 seim-arid > -40 Trewartha climate classification scheme: classification system that examines whether or not an area is suitable for agriculture, based on average temperatures and annual precipitation totals.Diurnal temperature range: the range of temperatures between day and night.Annual temperature range: the range of temperatures between the hottest and coldest months.Aridisol: shallow, skeletal desert soil associated with limited humus accumulation. Typically laden with mineral ions and salts (e.g: sulphates, chlorides) which remain in the soil without moisture to leach them.Capillary action: groundwater drawn up through soil by evaporation at the surface. Solonchak: a saline desert soil with alkaline conditions and a mineral composition of > 2% NaCl. Capillary action caused by evaporation from the soil’s surface often draws water up from underground reservoirs. This water becomes saturated with mineral ions as it moves towards the surface, where it evaporates to leave a crystallised salt layer known as ‘duricrust’.True perennial xerophytes: e.g: Esparto Grass. Drought-resistant desert vegetation adapted to survive year-round in arid conditions. Usually employ water conservation (by way of thick waxy cuticles, small stomata, lignin-rich stems, few small leaves etc…) to survive, reducing water loss by transpiration. Thorns used to deter herbivores.Succulent perennial xerophytes: e.g: Ferocactus. Employ long-term water storage, thorns and toxins to survive. Specialised internal tissue (consisting largely of spongy mesophyll cells) stockpiles water absorbed during rare or seasonal rainfall.Phreatophytic perennial xerophytes: e.g: Tamarisk Tree. Deep roots tap underground water supplies (underground reservoirs, aquifers, fossil rivers).Halophytic: salt-resistant.Ephemerals: ‘drought-evaders’, ephemerals survive by lying dormant as seeds or root clusters which rapidly germinate, grow and flower after seasonal rainfall or rare precipitation events. The plants soon whither and die (within weeks or even days of flourishing) to leave more seeds and roots awaiting moisture.Insolation: warming by solar radiation.Albedo: the ratio of solar radiation reflected to that absorbed.Causes of aridity The subtropical high pressure cell: high relative concentration of solar radiation at the equator causes large amounts of water vapour to form by evaporation and convection. This moist air is warmed, rises, cools and the water vapour condenses to form rainfall (falling over tropical equatorial regions). The rising air then reaches the tropopause, above which it cannot rise. Consequently, it spreads out towards the poles and slowly sinks. The air is compressed and thus warmed as it sinks, forming huge, stable bodies of descending air over the 30th parallels (30º N & S; the Tropics of Capricorn and Cancer). This has a blanket effect; it blocks convectional and maritime air currents, preventing rainfall. E.g: the Sahara Desert. The rain shadow effect: mountain ranges act as barriers against moist maritime air, forcing it to rise, cool, condense and lose its moisture over the mountains. The air that descends the lee slope is then warm and dry. Deserts often lie in the ‘rain shadow’ of such mountains, particularly when the relief is close to the sea, along a coast. E.g: the Gobi Desert and the Himalayas. The continental interior effect: arid environments are frequently located in the interior of a continent, far from the sea. This is because wet maritime air begins to lose its moisture as soon as it reaches a coast and once it has travelled a long distance inland, the air becomes very dry. Inland deserts also lack the moderating effect that the ocean has on temperature, resulting in very large diurnal and annual temperature ranges. E.g: the Gobi Desert. The cold current effect: planetary rotation, wind flow directional patterns and differing sea water temperatures/densities cause large upwellings of cold water from the sea bed close to many coasts. As moist maritime air blows over this cold surface water, precipitation takes place in the form of a light offshore mist. However, this mist is quickly evaporated, serving only to dehydrate the air and eliminate any chance of rain further inland. E.g: the Atacama Desert and the Humboldt Current.Mechanical weathering in arid geomorphology Exfoliation/onion skin weathering: the large diurnal ranges associated with arid desert environments cause repeated expansion and contraction of rock surfaces as they are insolated during the day and cooled at night (lack of cloud cover means that heat escapes rapidly into the atmosphere at night). This causes the rock to disintegrate in layers (the heating and cooling only affects the surface layers). Salt shattering: groundwater brought to the surface by capillary action along with water from dew and rain contain dissolved mineral salts. The water infiltrates shallow cracks and fissures in rocks, where it evaporates as the rock heats up during the daytime. The mineral salts crystallise out, exerting large internal pressures on the rock. Over time and in combination with exfoliation, this will cause disintegration in layers. Frost shattering/freeze-thaw weathering: typically associated with winter months or cold, high altitude deserts (e.g: the Gobi Desert). Sub-zero temperatures at night cause groundwater, dew, fog and water from other forms of precipitation trapped in cracks and fissures in desert rocks to freeze. As water freezes, it expands by 9%, exerting large internal pressures on the rock. The ice melts during the day and the process repeats. Over time, this will cause disintegration in layers. Block separation: a structural influence on mechanical weathering. Jointed rocks (e.g: limestone) often break down along faults joins and other lines of weakness where moisture is able to penetrate. Granular disintegration: a structural influence on mechanical weathering. Grainy rocks (e.g: sandstone) are porous due to millions of tiny air spaces. Consequently water is enabled to permeate the rock easily, causing rapid internal accumulation of salt or ice crystals. Over time, such a rock will break up into smaller fragments and ultimately sand grains. Shattering: a structural influence on mechanical weathering. Rocks with neither grainy nor jointed structures (e.g: basalt) will shatter into angular fragments under the influence of insolation/exfoliation. Exfoliation: a structural influence on mechanical weathering. Rocks with strong internal structures (e.g: granite) that are particularly massive or rounded will flake apart in layers. This is because solar radiation only penetrates the outer few millimetres of rock. Differential expansion: a compositional influence on mechanical weathering. In rocks comprising several different minerals, each compound in the rock will expand and contract at a unique rate. This causes additional stresses that contribute to the rock’s fragmentation. If the minerals are of different colours (e.g: black mica and white quartz crystals in granite), differential expansion will be increased - the darker the colour, the more heat absorbed, causing greater expansion.Chemical weathering in arid geomorphology Hydration: an anhydrous mineral compound (e.g: calcium sulphate/gypsum) rapidly absorbs water, expands and breaks up the rock within which it is contained. Solution: the dissolving of soluble rock minerals (e.g: calcium carbonate in limestone) by water, which then evaporates to leave a salty deposition. Carbonation: carbonic acid (carbon dioxide dissolved in the air’s moisture) corrodes rocks made of calcium carbonate (e.g: limestone). This requires a degree of humidity, so does not occur in arid to hyper-arid environments. Hydrolysis: H+ and OH- ions in water react with various ions (e.g: K+, Mg2+, Ca2+) in a rock’s mineral compounds. Over time, this causes the rock to decompose into a clay residue. If the water involved is acidic, hydrolysis occurs more rapidly. Oxidation: desert rocks containing iron (e.g: sandstone), when exposed to oxygen and moisture in the atmosphere, often turn reddish-brown. This is because Fe2+ is oxidised to Fe3+, which crumbles over time.The role of wind in arid geomorphology Entrainment: the process by which the wind picks up sedimentary particles. Suspension: very small sedimentary particles (fine sand and dust) are entrained by the wind and transported huge distances, often across continents and into the high atmosphere. Occurs mainly during sandstorms in flat deserts with high wind speeds. When the dust is deposited it forms a fine layer called ‘loess’. Saltation: small but coarse sedimentary particles (typically sand grains) move in leaps across the desert floor, just a few centimetres above the ground. When the grains drop back to the ground, others are displaced and caught by the wind, and so the process repeats. Saltating particles greatly increase the erosive power of the wind. Found in all deserts with moderate wind speeds. Surface creep/traction: larger, coarser sand grains and small rock particles are rolled along the desert surface, only stirring when the wind reaches a certain threshold above which it has sufficient kinetic energy to move the particles. However, because wind does not travel at a constant speed, such sediment moves in ‘fits and starts’ and is transported relatively slowly over short distances. Saltation can increase the speed of traction as smaller particles collide with and dislodge larger ones. Deflation: loose sediment is entrained, transported and deposited elsewhere, uncovering underlying sedimentary layers or rock strata. Leaves either shallow depressions known as ‘deflation hollows’ or flat, exposed rock surfaces - stone pavements known as ‘gibber plains’. Deflation hollows usually form where there is already a natural basin in the bedrock. Sand accumulated in the basin is gradually removed to produce an indent in the desert surface, into which cold air sinks at night to form dew. Moisture speeds up the rate of weathering of the exposed rock (see Mechanical weathering in arid geomorphology, above), resulting in the aeolian removal of additional loose sediment. This cycle escalates and can produce very large deflation hollows (e.g: the Qattara Depression, Egypt - 134 metres deep). Oases may also be formed by deflation, when aquifers are exposed, making water available at the desert’s surface. Gibber plains form when sand and finer sediment are stripped away by the wind to leave behind an expanse of larger, heavier pebbles and rocks. Abrasion/sand blasting/wind scour: sand and other sedimentary particles are hurled against rock surfaces by the wind. This can result in: a pitted ‘rock lattice’ on flat rock faces; ‘ventifacts’ on boulders and rocks in the path of one or more prevailing winds; ‘rock pedestals’ when saltating sand is entrained within the area up to 1.5m above the ground to undercut large boulders; ‘yardangs’ where ridges of hard and soft rock lie parallel to one another and to the direction of the prevailing wind, resulting in peaks and troughs respectively; ‘zeugen’ where the softer bands in horizontally stratified rock (as opposed to the vertical stratigraphy of yardang rock) are explored by aeolian abrasion. This produces undercut ridges with a protective cap of hard rock.The role of water in arid geomorphology Endoreic: flow moving into/through a desert area but not leaving it. Drains into an inland basin to evaporate (salt pan) or form an inland sea (e.g: the Dead Sea). Exoreic: flow moving into/through a desert area to eventually leave it and drain into an ocean. Endogenic: flow which originates inside the desert area. Allogenic: flow which originates outside the desert area. Perennial: flow which is constant all year round. Ephemeral: flow which is sporadic, inconstant and often seasonal. Aquifer: porous, water-bearing rock. Flash flood: usually endogenic, associated with the infrequent but torrential rainfall experienced in arid environments. Fossil drainage channels and surface run-off funnel water into dried up wadis, siqs and canyons. Large volume and speed of water generates kinetic energy to transport large quantities of sediment and rock, move boulders and erode dry channels.Rock-based desert landforms Wadis: desiccated, underfit river beds/valleys created at a time when the climate was wetter. Water flow in a wadi tends to be ephemeral, occurring after infrequent heavy rainfall. Often have braided sediment beds caused by water altering the arrangement of depositional material when it occasionally flows. Siqs: long, narrow wadis associated with dangerous flash floods. Mesas: a relic hill eroded into shape by water action. The horizontally stratified bedding planes of the rock are exposed, with a cap of hard rock. Mesas are large, flat-topped highland landforms and have distinct, steep edges that fall away into wadis and canyons. Inselbergs: a relic hill eroded into shape by water action. Inselbergs are more rounded and comprise igneous rock. They are believed to have been created during much wetter climatic conditions which facilitated extensive chemical weathering and water erosion. Buttes: a relic hill eroded into shape by water action. Buttes are isolated pillars of hard rock with a cap of duricrust/desert varnish, formed after extensive water erosion has taken place. Pediments: gently sloping eroded rock faces found at the feet of steeper slopes (e.g: those of mesas, buttes and inselbergs), formed by water erosion. May be bare with exposed rock, or covered with scree, sand, coarse sediment or alluvial deposits. Scree slopes/scarps: found at the top of drainage basins on steeper slopes where running water loses energy fastest, dropping the heaviest components of its load. Alluvial fans: after flowing over scree and/or pediment, water draining from wadis, siqs and canyons will spread out and lose kinetic energy, ‘choking’ on its own load. Thus the finest components of the load are deposited forming an alluvial fan at the base of a drainage channel. Bahadas: a large alluvial fan formed where multiple drainage channels converge at the bottom of the basin. Playas/chotts/salt pans: formed beyond the alluvial fan/bahada. Having deposited all transported sediment, the water finally ceases to flow. It then evaporates, frequently leaving behind the salts of evaporation to form a salt pan/chott, depending on the salinity of the soil. Yardangs: formed by aeolian abrasion where ridges of hard and soft rock lie parallel to one another and to the direction of the prevailing wind, resulting in peaks and troughs respectively. Zeugen: formed by aeolian abrasion. The softer bands in horizontally stratified rock (as opposed to the vertically stratified layers in yardang rock) are explored by aeolian abrasion. This produces undercut ridges with protruding layers and a protective cap of hard rock. Badlands: rocky desert landscape, but with sufficient rainfall to erode the many complex landforms listed above. Soft, impermeable rocks and infrequent, heavy rainstorms make for typical badlands. Micro- and meso-piping are characteristic of badlands and produce pitted honeycomb structures, or gullies, tunnels caves and arches respectively.Sand-based desert landforms Ripples: formed by saltation. Distance between crests = distance over which sand grains jump. This may suggest the wind speed. Zibar dunes: small (2-3m in height), simple transverse ridges. Parabolic dunes: small (2-3m in height), curved dunes with trailing ‘horns’ in the wake. Apex of the curve/arch is often deflated/depressed. Parabolic dunes are frequently anchored by vegetation and move slowly. Dome dunes: small (2-3m in height), simple dome-shaped accretions of sand. Nebkha dunes: similarly simple and small. Consist of accumulations on the lee, wind-sheltered side of vegetation, which prevents the sand being entrained. Barchans: large (up to 30m tall) crescent-shaped dunes. Characterised by a gently sloping windward face (built up by saltation) and a steeper lee side (formed by sand avalanching). The sifting of larger, coarser and heavier sand grains to the surface increases the likelihood of sand avalanches. Extending ‘horns’ of the dune are very mobile and susceptible to wind sculpting. Transverse ridges: large transverse dunes with long, straight crests aligned perpendicularly to the direction of the wind. Gentle windward and steep lee slopes for the same reasons as barchans. Barchanoid dunes: formed by the merging of multiple barchans, such that the ‘horn’ regions overlap, where merged barchans are being sculpted into transverse ridges or vice-versa. Linear ridges: crests aligned with the direction of the prevailing wind. May become very long, stretching hundreds of kilometres. Seif dunes: linear ridges that have been chiselled and warped by wind turbulence. Reversing dunes: curved, bending ridges with slopes facing in opposite directions on either side of the dune. The result of changing wind speeds and/or directions (often seasonal). Lee and windward slopes are constantly being realigned. Star dunes/rhourds: multiple prevailing winds of similar strength converge to produce a star dune. Multiple star dunes may join together to form an irregular ridge. Ergs: a vast, undulating plain of sand, moulded by the wind (e.g: the Sahara).Desertification Desertification: the making of deserts or the spreading of a desert into new areas around its margins (e.g: southern Sahara/Sahel region – see case study). Carrying capacity: the largest population of people and/or animals that a particular area or ecosystem can support at a given level of bio-productivity and technological development. Salinisation: the process whereby soluble salts accumulate in the soil. Happens naturally when rainwater sinks into the ground, dissolves salts in the soil and is then drawn back to the surface by capillary action. Here the rainwater dissolves, precipitating salts on the surface. This process is accelerated by the use of water from underground in irrigation.

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Energy Issues

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Glossary of Terms – EnergyRenewable resources – resources that will not run our and which are continuously being created. (They include solar, wind, tide, hydroelectric and geothermal power).Flow resources – resources that do not remain in one location but move about because of natural actions in the physical environment. Therefore, they must be used when and where they occur . (They include wind or tide).Non-renewable resources – finite or limited resources, which will run out sooner or later. (They include fossil fuels like coal, oil and natural gas. Also, nuclear, which requires uranium.)Stock resources – The total available amount of a finite resource if technology and economy were able to utilise it. Coal – a fossil fuel which formed when forests growing in shallow swamps during the Carboniferous period died and were covered by sediments.Oil – a fossil fuel which formed below the sea when remains of microscopic sea creatures died and fell to the sea floor.Natural Gas – a fossil fuel which formed at the same time as oil and is normally lighter so lies on top.Hydrocarbons – the chemicals from fossil fuels that are formed from plant and animal remains. They are compounds that only hydrogen and carbon atoms.Energy mix – the different sources of energy used by households, industry and commerce, and in the electricity generation industry.Communism – a system of government in which the state plans and controls the economy and owns the means of production. The goods and services produced are then divided between the people in the way that the state considers best for everyone.Democracy – a political system in which the people have the power to elect their government by the vote of a majority. They also have the power to vote to change the government.Ideology – a set of beliefs that form the basis of a political, economic or other system. Acid rain - rain or any other form of precipitation that is unusually acidic. It has a harmful effects on plants, aquatic animals, and infrastructure and is mostly caused by human emissions of sulphur and nitrogen compounds which react in the atmosphere to produce acids. Solar cooking – using the easy of the sun, often concentrated by reflection off aluminium foil, to heat a box in which food is kept. The heat makes the box act as a slow cooker for the food.Decommissioning – (in reference to nuclear power:) the closing down of a nuclear reactor and disposing of the contaminated material safely.Biomass - plant matter grown to generate electricity or produce for example trash such as dead trees and branches, yard clippings and wood chips. It also includes plant or animal matter used for production of fibres, chemicals or heat. Solar energy - the radiant light and heat from the Sun which is harnessed by humans. Either by Photovoltaic cell or direct heating of water Wind power - the conversion of wind energy into a useful form, such as electricity, using wind turbines. Tidal power - a form of hydropower that converts the energy of tides into electricity or other useful forms of power. Wave power - the transport of energy by ocean surface waves, and the capture of that energy to do useful work — for example for electricity generation.

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GEOG2

Summary of skills

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Spearman

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Summary of potential Personal Investigation questions

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BEFORE YOUR EXAM YOU SHOULD PREPARE YOURSELF BY WORKING THROUGH THESE QUESTIONSSTARTING POINTOutline the aim and describe the theory, idea or concept from which your aim was derived. Explain the geographical concept, process or theory that underpinned your enquiry.Outline one source of information that you used and assess the extent to which it was "fit for purpose".Explain how you devised your aim and how you responded to the risks associated with your chosen site for fieldwork .Describe the location of your fieldwork and explain why it was suitable for your investigation.METHODSOutline and justify one method of data collection that you used. Examine the limitations of your chosen methodology.Outline one hypothesis and describe one methodology for primary data collection in relation to this.How did you respond to risks associated with undertaking primary data collection?Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the method of data collection.SKILLSDescribe one method used to present your data. Describe one application of ICT skills in carrying out your fieldwork and comment on its usefulness.Describe and illustrate one technique you used to present data in this enquiry.What difficulties did you face when presenting your results? Describe a method of presentation that you used in your investigation and indicate how the chosen method was useful.INTERPRETATIONWhat are the advantages and disadvantages of the analysis technique(s) that you used? Outline and justify the use of one or more techniques used to statistically analyse your results Name one technique of data analysis and describe how it was used What is meant by the term 'significance' in the analysis of fieldwork data? In the context of the analysis of fieldwork data, outline the meaning of 'anomalies' . CONCLUSIONSHow far did your fieldwork conclusions match the geographical theory, concept or idea on which your study was based. Summarise your findings and suggest how this enquiry could be improved.Making specific reference to your results, suggest how your enquiry could be improved.In what ways would your conclusions be of use to other people?Drawing upon your findings, explain how your enquiry improved your understanding of the topic area.

The Investigation process in detail

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DATA

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Student answers

SPS answers

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Some Student answers - NOTE NOT MODEL ANSWERSAimOutline the aim and describe the theory, idea or concept from which your aim was derived.The aim of our investigation was ‘To investigate the changes in channel characteristics along the river Tillingbourne.’ The aim was created in relation to both a location context and theoretical context. Firstly the location context, the river Tillingbourne is the highest river in Southern England therefore it was decided that it would be a good area to challenge the theoretical context as due to its length it would be possible to have a large sample size .The theoretical context was that of Bradshaw’s model, this predicts that as a river progresses downstream its channel characteristics and morphology do change, with velocity and hydraulic radius increasing but gradient decreasing . Explain how you devised your aim and how you responded to the risks associated with your chosen site for fieldwork.The aim of our investigation was ‘To investigate the changes in channel characteristics along the river Tillingbourne.’ The aim was created in relation to both a location context and theoretical context. Firstly the location context, the river Tillingbourne is the highest river in Southern England therefore it was decided that it would be a good area to challenge the theoretical context as due to its length it would be possible to have a large sample size.The theoretical context was that of Bradshaw’s model, this predicts that as a river progresses downstream its channel characteristics and morphology do change, with velocity and hydraulic radius increasing but gradient decreasing. Before the fieldwork, three steps were taken, recognition of possible risks was discussed and a list of possible hazards was obtained, these hazards were given both a severity rating and likely hood rating from 0-10 based on the locational context, these ratings were then produced and the risks were ranked in accordance with them. Thirdly a mitigation procedure was created in order to minimise or avoid and possible risk. In our case Weils disease was both sever and likely so it was high up the list. Therefore we wore gloves and did not eat or drink the water and sanitary towels were brought along .Outline one source of information that you used and asses the extent to which it was “fit for purpose”.One source of information was secondary sources that were taken from other groups exploring the same theoretical context in the same locational context, the river Tillingbourne. Therefore these sources focussed upon the same factors as our enquiry, velocity, gradient and hydraulic radius. These secondary sources were incorporated into the samples we took in order to increase sample size.These sources were fit for purpose as they focussed on the same factors as ours, so they could be analysed in the same way, also their methodology was the same as he one used in our enquiry which meant that they two data sets were comparable.However, the time context of the secondary sources were unknown, this meant that the river may have been at a different base level and therefore have a different wetted perimeter as well as a different velocity. This would have meant that the two data sets, primary and secondary, were incompatible as they were not effectively measuring the same stream .Methodology:Outline and justify one method of data collection that you usedOne method of data collection used was the use of a Hydroprop, an instrument comprising of an impellor and a hard brass bolt, this was placed 4cm into the river at three periodically sampled points along the cross section of the river. When the hydroprop was in position it was timed to see how long it took for the water to move the impellor from one end of the fixed length brass bolt to the other, this data was then compared against the secondary data table in order to attain the actual velocity of the water. This method can be justified as it is reliable, as it can be repeated several times as it can be at a fixed depth and the brass bolt is of a constant length it is accurate as the propellor is specifically created to precise dimensions and so is the bolt to always give accurate results when compared to the table, it is precise as the table shows velocity to 2 decimal places. Also it is quick and easy which were useful considering time constraints .Examine the limitations of chosen methodology.Unfortunately the hydroprop method suffers from its locational context in relation to the river, if the river carries a large load or if there are many other persons working on the river at the same period of time as this method is used, sediment carried, perhaps in suspension, by the river is likely to get trapped between the plastic propellor and the brass bolt, this serves to nullify the method as an accurate one as it will cause a higher resistance and therefore an underestimate when compared against the calibration curve which has been constructed upon the false assumption that the propeller is almost restriction free. Another limitation of the technology is the difficulty of always finding the thalweg within the river’s horizontal plane. This piloted area which would yield the most accurate results is almost impossible to find reliably on repeated occasions. This creates a false area of accuracy and it may be piloted that it would be better to agree on a fixed depth rather than the thalweg. A limitation of the methodology is the fragility and the difficulty to set up of the instrument itself. In order to set the hydroprop up to considerable skill and it was easy to mis-assemble the apparatus; this would lead to a false result as it would not be comparable to the calibration curve. The methodology also relies on the data given on the instrument, the calibration curve, as this is not tested directly by the user, this may be incorrect and may be providing false information, and this would falsify the experiment .How did you respond to risks associated with undertaking primary data collection? Before fieldwork had begun, three separate steps were taken in order to minimise and if possible remove risks associated with the primary data collection. The first step was the recognition of potential hazards and these were compiled into a list of every hazard that could possibly befall the team as data was collected. Secondly, the chance of the occurrence of these risks was analyzed and each risk was given a level of 1-10 according to how likely this hazard was to occur. Thirdly, the impact and severity of the risk was taken into account and again given a level of 1-10 depending on how severe the risk would potentially be if it occurred. These two levels were then multiplied and the list was prioritised accordingly. A mitigating procedure was then developed in order to reduce the risk as far as possible focussing primarily on those whose product had been high and therefore prioritised. An example of a risk in the river was Weil’s disease; this is both severe, with possible death and a high likelihood and therefore was prioritised highly. Our mitigating procedure included not eating and drinking near the river, washing hands after contact with river and wearing gloves in order to minimise contact with water .PresentationDescribe a method of presentation that you used in your investigation and indicate how the chosen method was useful.A method of presentation used to illustrate the results was the scatter graph, the presentation method involved creating two sets of axis, taking the independent variable of distance down stream on the x-axis and plotting the data for velocity, gradient and hydraulic radius on the y-axis which theory tells us will be dependent on the distance, this allows us to see readily, whether or not there is a correlation present in the data that appears to fit with the Bradshaw model. This created a graph which indicated vital factors about the results. These included: maximum/minimum, averages (mean, medium and mode) and anomalies. The scatter graph is useful as it can quickly indicate these above factors as they can easily be located, for example it was clear on the gradient scatter graph that the maximum was at the upper course and the minimum was at the lower course of the river. Also a best fit line can be created upon the diagram in order to formalise the graph and allow the trend to be seen clearer, in all these cases, our trend lines behaved according to Bradshaw’s model. This trend can then be statistically tested using spearman’s rank theorem in order to remove chance from the trend. This allows trends to be proved upon the data set .What difficulties did you face when presenting your results?A difficulty associated with the usage of scatter graphs as an instrument to present our data is the uncertainty that comes with the usage of best fit lines. The line of best fit can either be linear or a curve, it is important that the correct line is used in order to portray the correct image, as if the wrong line were to be used then a false conclusion could be created. On an even more basic level, whether it is possible to create a best fit line at all is debatable, often data has a vague trend spoilt by outliers and anomalies, therefore it is uncertain whether the trend is significant enough to have a best fit line, it was tempting to create one that would agree with Bradshaw’s model, however, this might invalidate our results and lead us to the wrong conclusions. Our solution to this problem was to test each scatter graph according to spearman’s rank theory, we pre-decided a significance level that would be necessary in order to create a best fit line, a significance of 85%, this then gave us a critical value and if passed we created a best fit line .Describe one application of ICT skills in carrying out your fieldwork and comment on its usefulnessICT skills were used in the overlaying of data upon GoogleEearth. Scatter graphs and data were overlaid on Google Earth to create a layer upon the satellite image of the river Tillingbourne. Each result set was linked to the exact location where it was gathered. This allowed the trends to be shown even more substantially as the locational context could be viewed easily and any anomalies could be examined and it was possible to search for factors which could have contributed to their anomalous nature. However, there were some problems associated with this application; often the images were out of date as the satellite producing the images had not passed over the particular location in the recent update. This could lead to false conclusion stemming from mis-information. An example of this would be where the river was recently straightened by the local council and therefore the river had a higher discharge than would have been expected from the satellite image. Also whose land was not shown; this could lead to problems associated with sampling as it could not be taken into consideration, this could lead to false sampling methods . Results and AnalysisWhat are the advantages and disadvantages of the analysis technique used?The analysis technique used in this context was the spearmen’s rank technique coupled with significance testing. The advantages of this analysis technique were that it was possible to negate chance as a factor for the trends seen, it allows a comparison between data sets (eg velocity and gradient) as to their degree of certainty and it also is easy and quick to perform as a statistical test.The disadvantages of the technique are the need for a large sample size in order to gain an accurate result, it offers no explanation for the pattern shown and it pays no regard to the magnitude of the values used .Outline and justify the use of one or more technique used to statistically analyse your resultsThe statistical analysis technique used was the Spearman’s rank analysis coupled with significance testing. The scatter graph is first needed and a line of best fit created. The values are then ranked according to the two variables, both the distance from the source (1 to 10) and the velocity, gradient or hydraulic radius ranked also (from 1 to 10). The ranks not the variables are then used in the equation 1-(6(SUM)d^2)/n(n^2 – n) this generates a number which when compared against the sample size of the assessment forms a significance rating which if over 90% (the decided level) can eliminate the effects of chance from the trend seen .This method can be justified as it is accurate, as it is a statistical method and can be as precise as needed as the critical significance rating can be chosen according to the context. Also the rating is very useful as it can be remove chance in the assessment of the relationship between the two variables. One of the most significant advantages of this technique is its ease to use; this allowed the analysis to be quicker and easier .ConclusionHow far did your fieldwork conclusions match the geographical theory concept or idea on which your study was based?The geographical theory being tested in this assessment is Bradshaw’s model, that the characteristics of the river change as the river progresses downstream. After presenting and analysing the data it has been concluded that the data does match the Bradshaw model and that the data sets are linked. As the distance from the source increases, so does the velocity as well as the hydraulic radius although this is expected as they are linked, as velocity increases so do erosion rates, therefore larger channel areas.However, the data does not completely agree with the Bradshaw model, both the velocity (only 85% significant) and gradient (only 70%) do not fully agree with the model. This could be due to the poor and unreliable technique of the cork method and the land use in the locational context. This has meant they do not agree with the theoretical context.However, the aim has been fulfilled, to investigate whether the data agrees with the Bradshaw model .Summarise your findings and suggest how this enquiry could be improvedThe aim of the enquiry was to ‘investigate the changes in the river Tillingbourne as it progressed downstream’. Our enquiry measured the following values as the river progressed downstream: velocity, gradient and hydraulic radius. The summary of these findings were that they all behaved exactly as the theoretical context, Bradshaw’s model, predicted, velocity increased from 1m/s to 20m/s , the gradient decreased from 3 degrees to 0.4 degrees and the hydraulic radius increased from 0.2 to 0.8. However, the trends were not all without chance, as the gradient change trend was only 80% certain and the velocity was 83%, so not past our decided critical significance percentage, 85%.The enquiry could have been improved, in terms of primary data, if there had been a less limited time context then more repeats could have taken place, this would have increased the sample size in spearman’s rank therefore decreasing the impact of outliers, such as velocity of 0.1m/s in site 4. Another improvement would have been availability of more sites, as locational context of private land and therefore legislation hindered our sampling method and prevented a periodic method, if we had a better access to land results would have been les clustered.In terms of secondary data, it would have been useful if access to the dates and context of the secondary data had been available, so that the results were not influenced by the time context at which the secondary data was taken. It would also have been useful if more secondary data had been available which would have increased the sample size of our spearman’s rank .

Redfern's review - READ THIS

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Summary of Presentation techniques

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OCR AS

AS Unit F761: Managing Physical Environments

Coastal environments

Sea-level change; causes & impacts

Causes

AQA A2

GEOG3

Plate tectonics and associated hazards

Plate movement

Plate tectonics theory

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Earth structure, plate tectonics theory: convection currents and sea-floor spreading. Evidence: continental drift and palaeomagnetism

Theory development

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Palaeomagnetism

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Destructive, constructive and conservative platemargins.

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Destructive, constructive and conservative platemargins. Processes: seismicity and vulcanicity.Associated landforms: young fold mountains, riftvalleys, ocean ridges, deep sea trenches and islandarcs.

Hot spots

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Hot spots associated with plumes of magma andtheir relationship to plate movement.

Vulcanicity

Variations in volcanicactivity.

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Variations in the type and frequency of volcanicactivity in relation to types of plate margin and typesof lava.

Types of volcano

Minor extrusive activity

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Minor forms of extrusive activity – geysers, hotsprings and boiling mud.

Geyser animation

Major forms of extrusive activity

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Major forms of extrusive activity – types of volcanoes.

Extrusions & Intrusions

Two case studies of recent (ideally within the last 30years) volcanic events

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Two case studies of recent (ideally within the last 30years) volcanic events should be undertaken fromcontrasting areas of the world. In each case, thefollowing should be examined:• the nature of the volcanic hazard• the impact of the event• management of the hazard and responses to theevent.

Forms of intrusive activity – dykes, sills, batholiths

Intrusion

Seismicity

Earthquakes

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The causes and main characteristics of earthquakes:focus and epicentre; seismic waves and earthquakemeasurement.

Tsunamis

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Tsunamis – characteristics and causes.

Two case studies of recent (ideally within the last 30years) seismic events

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Two case studies of recent (ideally within the last 30years) seismic events should be undertaken fromcontrasting areas of the world. In each case, thefollowing should be examined:• the nature of the seismic hazard• the impact of the event• management of the hazard and responses to theevent.

Comparison of Haiti & Chile Earthquakes 2010

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Haiti - review of the responses

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Development and globalisation

Ecosystems: change & challenge

Nature of ecosystems

Ecosystem Theory

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Structure of ecosystems, energy flows, trophic levels, food chains and food webs

Ecosystems in the British Isles over time

Temperate deciduous woodland biome.

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The characteristics of the climatic climax: temperate deciduous woodland biome.

Lithosere or Psammosere or Hydrosere or Halosere.

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Succession and climatic climax: illustrated by ONE of lithosere, psammosere, hydrosere or halosere.

ONE plagioclimax such as a heather moorland.

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The effects of human activity on successionillustrated by ONE plagioclimax such as a heather moorland.

One tropical biome

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The biome of one tropical region (savanna, grassland or tropical monsoon forest or tropical equatorial rainforest

The main characteristics of the biome.

Ecological responses to the climate and soil moisture budget - adaptations by vegetation and animals.

Human activity and its impact on the biome.

Development issues in the biome to include aspects of biodiversity and the potential for sustainability

Ecosystem issues on a local scale: impact of human activity

Changes in ecosystems resulting from urbanisation.

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Urban niches. Colonisation of wasteland: thedevelopment of distinctive ecologies along routeways(eg roads and railways). The planned and unplanned introduction of new species and the impact of this on ecosystems.

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Changes in the rural/urban fringe.

Ecological conservation areas. ONE case study should be undertaken.

Ecosystem issues on a global scale

The relationships between human activity, biodiversity and sustainability

Management of two fragile environments (conservation versus exploitation)

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The management of fragile environments (conservation versus exploitation): two contrasting case studies of recent (within the last 30 years) management schemes in fragile environments should be undertaken.

Savanna network

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GEOG4A

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The enquiry sequence however remains the same:Identify locational context & theoretical context Identify broad Aim - learn this - you are guranteed to have to state this and you must make sure it is clear in your mind - so many answers will required you to refer to it. If you visited London rather than Paris you should ensure that your AIM includes reference to both to allow you the scope to write about eitherSet succinct hypothesis - clear statement with obviously no question mark!Identify data to be gathered - primary source and secondary source Gather data using techniques that include; piloting, sampling, reviewing, justifying, ideas for improvement in the future - Each of these should be included where appropriate so make sure you can say something; related to the locational context and the theoretical context.Presenting the data - cartographic, graphical, GIS - know your skills, how to use them and the pros and cons of eachAnalysing the data - descriptive statistics & inferential statistics; Spearman, U & Chi2 - know your techniques and do not under play the role of descriptive statistics, how to use them and the pros and cons of eachAnalysis results - always relating to the Aims Final conclusions - including an erudite crtique of the results and conclusions given the methodology, its weaknesses and strengths - don't just blame the rain or rude people.Risk Assessments - identify risk, assess likelihood of event, devise strategy to mitigate against event - a banker of a question that can easily be anticiptate.

Geog Review on Questionnaires

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Presentation & Skills textbook