Biology

Alternation of Generations

diploid stage produces spores

Sporophytes divide via meiosis to form haploid spores which grow into gametophytes

Haploid stage produces gametes

Gametophytes form gametes, which undergo fertilization to form diploid zygotes

Zygotes grow into sporophytes

Seed-Producing

Gymnosperms & Angiosperms

Seeds allow plants to reproduce sexually

without the need for water or protection

Seedless

Bryophytes & Ferns

Non-Vascular

Bryophytes

Contain rhizoids

small hairs to keep plant in place

Do not have roots

Rely on moist environments

Does not contain xylem or phloem

Vascular

Ferns, Gymnosperms, Angiosperms

Contains roots

Phloem transports foods

Xylem transports water

Vascular tissue made of lignin, cell walls more rigid

Contain vascular vessels to transport food and water throughout the plant

Four major groups

Angiosperms

Cotyledon

structure that stores food used by the embryo

Two types

Dicot

Contain two cotyledons

Dandelions, Crab Apples, Maple Trees

Monocot

Contain one cotyledon

Corn, Orchids, Onions

Seed-producing

seeds enclosed in a fruit

Flowering

Flowers

reproductive structure

vascular

Gymnosperms

Cones

reproductive structures

Pollen grains are produced in the male cone, which are released into the wind to fertilize the eggs inside of the female cones

Most are evergreen

Includes conifers

Seed-producing plants

on the surface of cone scales

vascular

Cone Bearing

Tall and woody

Have roots, stems and needle-like leaves

Ferns

Contain rhizomes

horizontal underground stem

Contain fronds

large, divided leaf-like structure

No flowers or seeds

produces spores

Vascular

Have roots, stems and leaves

Bryophytes

Non-vascular

No roots

just rhizoids

suited to moist areas

Includes mosses, liverworts and hornworts

Eukaryotes

Autotroph

photosynthesis

autotrophs

heterotrophs

Mostly unicellular

diverse group of organisms

Reproduce asexually via
binary fission or can exchange
DNA in sexual reproduction

PLANT-LIKE
PROTISTS

Multicellular Algae

3 types of multicellular algae

Green Algae

Red Algae

Brown Algae

Euglenoids

Euglena

possess a light detecting eye spot
(“stigma”) to move
towards light

Have chloroplasts and conduct photosynthesis

also have flagella that can absorb nutrients in
the dark

Found in shallow fresh water

Dinoflagellates

Red Tide

phenomenon where dinoflagellates
containing red pigments are so concentrated
that the sea water has a distinct red colour

Can reproduce very quickly

causing algal blooms

2 flagellas at right angles

is a Food source

Phytoplankton

Diatoms

Sexual

sexual reproduction sometimes
occurs under unfavourable
environmental conditions

Usually reproduce asexually
through mitosis

Rigid cell wall made up of silica

is a Food source

Phytoplankton

single-celled, free-floating aquatic organisms

Lack vascular system of true plants

Unicellular
or Multicellular

Autotrophs

Contain chlorophyll pigments in their chloroplasts

Most are aquatic

ANIMAL-LIKE
PROTISTS

Ciliates

Environments

-Aquatic
-Animal host

example is the paramecium

cilia

covers the
surface of the cell

Flagellates

example Trichonympha

Live in
digestive tracts of termites, helping them digest cellulose in plant material

Have one or more flagella

use for movement

Sporozoans

Alternate between sexual and asexual reproduction

Cannot move on their own

usually transmitted through
vectors

Usually parasitic

example Plasmodium vivax – causes Malaria

Transmitted by female mosquitos

Parasite destroys red blood cells

Cercozoans

Environments

Salt water, fresh water, mud, animal host.

pseudopods

used for movement and capturing food

cytoskeleton to change shape

Cell membrane but no cell wall

Single celled

Most are unicellular & motile

Many are parasitic

take nutrients from organisms in
which they reside in

Heterotrophic

FUNGUS-LIKE
PROTISTS

Plasmodial Slime Mould

Engulf food much like an amoeba

feeds off of decaying material

Tiny slug-like organism

Produce spores

Heterotrophic

Absorb nutrients from living organisms, dead organisms and wastes

Water Mould

Filamentous threads extend into host
tissue to absorb nutrients

Most live in water/moist environments

Grow on the surface of dead organisms/plants

decompose organic material

Cellular Slime Mould

pseudoplasmodium

Develops into a stalked structure that produces spores

large mass of cells that can move as one organism

Exists as individual cells during the feeding stage

Heterotrophs

release digestive enzymes into surroundings and absorb digested nutrients

Mutualistic: partners with another organism

Saprobial (decomposers): feed on dead organisms

Predatory: trap and eat prey

Parasitic: absorb nutrients from host

Eukaryotes

Cell walls contain chitin

Five main groups

Club Fungi

E.g. mushrooms, puffballs and stinkhorns

can be parasitic

damaging crops such as corn, wheat & rye

Hyphae spread underground forming the mycelium

Sexual reproduction

Fruiting bodies release basiospores from basidium

Multicellular

Sac Fungi

Sexual reproduction

Single-celled yeasts reproduce asexually by budding

mitosis

Two mating types fuse - develop spore-bearing asci

Largest group of fungi

Zygospore Fungi

Remains dormant until favorable conditions return

Produce zygospores

terrestrial

Usually reproduces asexually

Sexual reproduction occurs in certain conditions

Multicellular

Chytrids

Can be parasitic or live on decaying organisms

Reproduce sexually & asexually

Through development of zoospores

Spores have flagella

Aquatic

Mostly unicellular

Fungi Imperfecti

reproduce asexually, no sexual structures

Penicillium chryogenum

Produces penicillin (antibiotic)

Used to make soy sauce and some cheeses

Mutualism in Fungi

have several mutualistic relationships with other organisms

both organisms benefit

Fungi as Parasites

Parasitic fungi live in or on organisms

penetrate their host to receive nutrients

cause illness, or death, to their host (plants and animals)

Can also parasitize animals

Multicellular

Except yeast

Basic body structure

Hyphae:
Thread-like filament making up basic structure of fungi

Mycelium:
Densely packed network of hyphae

Fruiting Body:
Spore-producing reproductive structure above ground

Reproduction

Reproduce asexually and sexually

budding, fragmentation and/or spore formation

Body Cavity

whether animals have organs suspended in a fluid-filled body cavity called the coelom

Reproduction

most animals use gametic reproduction, sperm fertilizes eggs

Asexually

alternate between sexual and asexual modes

aphids

Internal fertilization

gametes combine inside the body

humans

External fertilization

gametes combine outside the body

fish

Movement

are they motile or sessile

Segmentation

division of the body into repetitive segments

Coelomates

have a “true body cavity” or coelom that allows the development and suspension of complex internal organs

E.g. earthworms, insects, vertebrates

Acoelomates

have no coelom (flattened bodies)

E.g. flatworms, corals, jellyfish

Symmetry and Body Plans

Bilateral symmetry

divided into mirror halves through a single plane

E.g. Humans, turtles

Radial symmetry

divided into equal portions around the center axis

E.g. Starfish, jellyfish

Asymmetrical

no body symmetry

Primary Animalia Phyla

Cnidaria

Jellyfish, Coral, Hydra

Have tissues and a simple nervous system

Have 2 basic body forms

Medusa

umbrella-shaped free-swimming form

jellyfish

Polyp

tube-shaped sessile body form

adult sea anemones, corals

Radial body symmetry

One of the oldest animal group

Nematoda

Many are parasitic

Roundworms: Pinworm

Unsegmented, cylindrical worms

Simple nervous & digestive system

Bilateral symmetry

Mostly microscopic

Mollusca

Snails, slugs, octopus, clams, oysters

Has 3 germ layers

Have a coelem

Mantle

membrane surrounding mollusc’s organs

Soft-bodies usually protected by a hard shell

3 Major Classes of Molluscs

Cephalopoda

Propel themselves by quickly drawing in then releasing water

Octopuses and squids

marine predators or scavengers with grasping tentacles

Gastropoda

Found in terrestrial, marine and freshwater environments

Snails and slugs

spiral shell with a single opening

except non-shelled slugs

Bivalvia

marine and freshwater species protected by a hinged shell

No head; filter feeders

Oysters, clams, muscles

Chordata

Dorsal nerve cord

tube-shaped cord from which nerves branch to all body parts

Replaced by spinal cord & brain in vertebrate development

Notochord

flexible, rod-shaped structure extending length of body used to attach muscles

Replaced by spine & skull in vertebrate development

is split into 5 major classes

Reptiles

Mammals

Amphibians

Birds

Fish

Gill slits

in the throat

terrestrial vertebrates only have gill slits in the embryo

fish, frogs, snakes, birds, dogs, humans

Coelomates

Multiple organ systems

Sexual reproduction

Most have bilateral symmetry

Most are vertebrates

Echinodermata

Starfish, sea urchins, sand dollars

Spiny endoskeleton

internal skeleton protecting organs and providing support for muscle attachment

No respiratory, excretory or circulatory system

Reproduce sexually or asexually

Move via a water-vascular system

use tube feet for locomotion and to capture prey

Tube feet: muscular, fluid-filled tubes that end with structures resembling suction cups

Radial symmetry as adults; larvae have bilateral symmetry

Marine animals

Arthropoda

Divided into 4 major groups

Insects

beetles, bees and butterflies

Crustaceans

crabs, lobsters and shrimp

Myriapods

millipedes and centipedes

Chelicerates

spiders, mites and scorpions

Spiders, scorpions, crayfish, crabs

Well-developed nervous systems and sense organs

Hard, external exoskeleton made of chitin for muscle attachment and protection

Joint-legged

Annelida

Earthworms

Has 3 germ layers

Bilateral symmetry

Have a coelem

Tube-like body divided into ringed segments

Platyhelminthes

Tapeworm

Simple nervous system with concentration of nerve cells at the “head” end

Acoelomates

Have all 3 germ layers

Bilateral body symmetry

Porifera

Sponges

Found in marine & freshwater environments

Body has 1 opening

Only 2 germ layers

No organs or tissues

Asymmetrical body plan

Number of germ layers

embryonic tissue layers that eventually develop into body organs

Most animals have 3 layers

Endoderm

inner layer, forms inner lining of organs

Mesoderm

middle layer, develops into organs

Ectoderm

outer layer, forms exoskeleton

Levels of organization

classified based on differences in their structure, tissues and organ systems

Most consist of cells organized into tissues then organs

Vertebrates

animals with a backbone (5% of animals)

Invertebrates

animals without a backbone (95% of animals)

Most reproduce sexually and produce an embryo

Most are motile, some are sessile

Use aerobic respiration

Eukaryotes

Multicellular

Do not have cell walls

Heterotrophic

ingest then digest their food

Thermophiles

Found in hot springs in Yellowstone National Park, and deep sea vents

Live in extremely hot water (above 100°C)

Acidophiles

Found in volcanic craters and mine drainage lakes

Some can live at a pH of 0, which is the acidity of car battery acid

Halophiles

Found in the Dead Sea, Great Salt Lake, etc.

Live in very salty water

Methanogens

Found in swamps, marshes, sewage treatment plants, digestive tracts of animals, landfills

Obtain energy by changing H2 and CO2 into methane gas

Live in anaerobic environments

Allow the use of techniques in harsh conditions where other enzymes would break down

Gene cloning, breaking down hydrocarbons in crude oil

Prokaryotes

Cell wall present but no peptidoglycan

Not pathogenic

Thrive in extreme environments

Extremophiles – thrive in extreme, harsh environments such as salt lakes, hot springs or animal guts
Cell membrane has special lipids allowing this

Cell membrane has special lipids allowing them to survive in extreme environmnets.

LAG PHASE: growth is slow as bacteria acclimates to food and nutrients

LOG PHASE: rapid bacterial growth at an exponential rate

STATIONARY PHASE: more and more bacteria are competing for a dwindling food supply
Growth stabilizes

DEATH PHASE: wastes build up and food sources are depleted
Bacteria start to die

Reproduction

Binary Fission:
Asexual Reproduction
Produces 2 genetically identical cells

Conjugation:
Sexual Reproduction
Transfer of genetic material (plasmids) - Sex pilus is used to share genetic information

Pathogenic

Streptococcus pyogenes– causes Strep Throat and Necrotizing Fascitis (flesh-eating disease).

Helpful

decomposing bacteria, N-fixing bacteria, bacteria used to make vinegar, cheese or yogurt.

Gram stains

Gram-Negative Bacteria:
Have a thin protein layer on cell wall and will stain pink

Gram-Positive Bacteria:
Have a thick protein layer on cell wall and will stain purple

Contain plasmids: small, circular pieces of DNA

Genetic material is contained in nucleoid

Endospores: dormant, hard-walled structures that protect genetic material during extreme conditions
When suitable conditions return, endospore turns back into active bacterium

Heterotroph

Must obtain food

Autotroph

Produce own food

Flagellum

tail-like extension

Pili

Hair-like structures

live in environments with moderate conditions.

Grouping (prefixs)

Groupings: (prefix)
Diplo – pairs.
Staphylo – clusters.
Strepto – chains.

Shapes

Shapes:
Cocci – round.
Bacilli – rod-shaped.
Spirilli – spiral-shaped
.

lack membrane-bound organelles

Example: Lactobacillus

Example: cyanobacteria